BUILDING 
SUPERINTENDENCE 


f 

BUILDING 
SUPERINTENDENCE 


FOR  YOUNG  ARCHITECTS,  STUDENTS  AND  OTHERS 

INTERESTED  IN  BUILDING  OPERATIONS  AS 

CARRIED  ON  AT  THE  PRESENT  DAY 


BV 

T.  M.  CLARK 

FELLOW  OF  THE  AMERICAN   INSTITUTE  OF  ARCHITECTS 


NEW  EDITION.     REVISED  AND  REWRITTEN 

*^rlTO?;j?^:'l^C^TTc!.WHcS  I 


jfteto  J?ork 

THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  co.,  LTD. 

1903 

All  Rights  "Reserved 


1103 


COPYRIGHT,  1883 
BY  JAMES  R.  OSGOOD  &  CO. 

COPYRIGHT,  1903 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


First  published  elsewhere 

Reprinted,  May  1894,  February  1895,  July  1896 

New  Edition  Revised  and  Rewritten.    Set  up  and  electrotyped 

May  1903 


THE   MASON    PRESS 
SYRACUSE  •  NEW  YORK 


PREFACE 


THIS  is  not  a  treatise  on  the  architectural  art, 
or  the  science  of  construction,  but  a  simple  expo- 
sition of  the  ordinary  practice  of  building  in  this 
country,  with  suggestions  for  supervising  such 
work  efficiently.  Architects  of  experience  proba- 
bly know  already  nearly  everything  that  the  book 
contains,  but  their  younger  brethren,  as  well  as 
those  persons  not  of  the  profession  who  are  occa- 
sionally called  upon  to  direct  building  operations, 
will  perhaps  be  glad  of  its  help. 


1 16236 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIFTEENTH  EDITION 


Although  not  very  many  years  have  elapsed  since  the  publica- 
tion of  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  the  art  of  construction  has 
advanced  so  rapidly  that  it  has  become  desirable  to  rewrite  a  large 
part  of  it,  so  as  to  bring  the  whole  into  accordance  with  modern 
practice  and  modern  standards.  In  regard  to  stone  buildings  and 
wooden  dwellings  the  changes  need  be  only  in  detail,  but  it  has 
seemed  advisable  to  change  the  third  part  entirely,  taking  up,  with 
some  minuteness,  a  steel-framed  office  building,  for  the  reason 
that  the  modern  American  steel-framed  structure  differs  from 
everything  else,  and  must  be  specially  studied ;  while  the  rapidity 
with  which  this  sort  of  construction  is  being  adopted  throughout 
the  country  makes  it  particularly  necessary  that  young  architects, 
as  well  as  owners,  should  know  as  much  as  possible  of  the  practical 
points  involved  in  it. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  A  STONE  CHURCH 7 

CHAPTER  II. 
A  WOODEN  DWELLING-HOUSE  .        .        .    '   .T    " 105 

CHAPTER  III. 
A  MODEL  SPECIFICATION 218 

CHAPTER  IV. 
CONTRACTS 258 

CHAPTER  V. 
THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  A  STEEL  FRAME  BUILDING         .        .        .        .265 

INDEX 303 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


THE  DIRECTION  OF  BUILDING  OPERATIONS 

ALL  who  have  had  any  experience  in  the  supervision  of  build- 
ing operations  know  the  importance  of  having  a  systematic  plan 
in  pursuing  their  examination  of  any  given  work,  and  the 
difficulty,  without  such  aid,  of  giving  adequate  attention  to  all  the 
innumerable  matters  of  construction  which  require  attention  at 
their  proper  time,  and  before  they  are  covered  up  or  built  over,  so 
as  to  make  changes  inconvenient  or  impossible  ;  and  there  are  few 
who  cannot  recall  instances  of  vexatious  mistakes,  costly  altera- 
tions, or  buildings  left  insecure,  through  want  of  attention  at  the 
right  moment  to  defects  which  an  hour's  labor  would  then  have 
remedied.  To  the  young  architect,  especially,  a  manual  which 
may  help  to  direct  his  attention  to  all  the  various  details  which 
should  be  noticed,  and  put  him  in  mind  of  the  defects  to  be  looked 
for  at  each  stage  of  a  given  construction,  can  hardly  fail  to  be  of 
use,  and  such  a  manual,  it  is  hoped,  the  following  pages  will 
supply.  Although  the  practice  of  different  localities  varies  in 
certain  details  of  construction,  the  principles  of  good  work  are  the 
same  everywhere,  with  unimportant  local  variations. 

The  general  subject  of  superintendence  may  with  advantage 
be  considered  under  the  three  heads  of  Stone  Buildings,  including 
heavy  and  massive  constructions  generally;  Wooden  Buildings, 
under  which  may  be  taken  up  the  details  of  domestic  convenience 
which  are  particularly  connected  with  dwelling-houses,  and  Mer- 
cantile Buildings,  as  represented  by  a  steel-framed  structure, 
whose  construction  involves  the  use  of  iron  beams  and  columns, 
and  their  connections,  and  the  modes  of  casing  them  securely  with 

i  (i) 


2  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

stone,  brick  and  terra-cotta;  and  under  this  head,  also,  may  be 
considered  the  details  of  boiler  and  steam  work,  for  heating  and 
power,  together  with  such  matters  of  electrical  engineering,  and 
of  the  proper  installation  of  elevator  engines  and  power  plants,  as 
a  young  architect  most  needs  to  understand.  Under  each  head 
the  progress  of  a  typical  building  is  described,  from  the  first 
breaking  of  ground  to  the  completion  of  the  work,  showing  the 
successive  stages  of  construction,  and  the  order  of  delivery  of 
material  on  the  ground ;  and  some  general  directions  for  judging 
of  the  quality  of  materials  are  given  at  the  time  they  make  their 
first  appearance  on  the  premises. 

So  far  as  possible,  a  standard  is  presented,  in  treating  of  the 
different  kinds  of  work,  by  which  each  sort  can  be  judged.  Con- 
tractors and  owners  frequently  differ  in  regard  to  what  consti- 
tutes a  "good,  substantial  and  workmanlike  manner"  of  executing 
any  particular  piece  of  construction,  and  as  the  architect  has  to 
decide  between  them,  it  is  important,  not  only  to  avoid  doing 
injustice  to  one  or  the  other,  but  to  secure  respect  for  his  decision, 
that  he  should  be  familiar  with  ordinary  practice.  Young  archi- 
tects rarely  have  much  opportunity,  in  their  student  days,  for 
gaining  this  familiarity  by  experience,  and  it  is  believed  that  the 
descriptions  of  good  ordinary  work,  as  distinguished  from  work 
theoretically  perfect,  may  be  of  use  to  them,  as  well  as  to  owners. 
At  the  same  time,  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  the  usual 
practice  in  different  kinds  of  work,  it  is  of  advantage  to  point  out 
such  improved  methods  as  are  sometimes  used,  with  the  caution, 
however,  that,  under  the  common  contract,  the  builder  cannot  be 
compelled  to  adopt  them,  at  his  own  expense,  unless  they  are  rec- 
ognized in  the  best  ordinary  practice  of  the  locality  to  which  he 
belongs,  or  are  particularly  mentioned  in  the  specifications. 

For  the  discomfiture  of  bad  workmen,  the  young  architect  is 
warned  against  some  of  the  ways  in  which  defective  materials  or 
construction  are  covered  up,  and  is  reminded  to  look  for  bad  work 
before  the  building  arrives  at  so  advanced  a  stage  that  it  can  no 
longer  be  detected  or  remedied. 

To  save  space,  it  is  supposed  that  the  reader  is  familiar  with 
the  principles  of  construction  as  given  in  the  text-books  and  with 
the  common  forms  of  specifications  and  building  contracts.  Any 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  3 

one  in  need  of  such  elementary  information  will  find  Dobson's 
"Art  of  Building,"  in  the  English  Lockwood  series,  although  old, 
an  excellent  little  handbook.  The  three  volumes  of  "Notes  on 
Building  Construction,"  prepared  for  the  use  of  the  English 
Science  and  Art  Department  at  South  Kensington,  and  published 
by  Rivingtons,  Waterloo  Place,  London,  are  also  well-arranged 
and  useful ;  and  those  who  read  French  will  find  Ramee's  "Archi- 
tecture Pratique,"  and  Rondelet's  "Traite  Theorique  et  Pratique 
de  1'Art  de  Batir,"  of  great  value.  In  this  country,  treatises  on 
building  practice  are  more  specialized.  Trautwine's  "Engineer's 
Pocket-Book"  gives  a  condensed  view  of  nearly  all  varieties  of 
construction;  Kidder's  "Architects'  and  Builders'  Pocket-Book" 
devotes  itself  more  to  building,  and  less  to  engineering;  Berg's 
"Safe  Building"  takes  up  the  mechanics  of  the  art;  and  Baker's 
"Masonry  Construction;"  Thurston's  "Materials  of  Engineer- 
ing;" Johnson's  "Materials  of  Construction,"  and  many  other 
books,  are  of  value  in  their  special  fields. 

Some  years  ago,  it  was  common  for  architects  and  others  to 
use  printed  forms  of  specifications  as  the  basis  for  their  contracts, 
erasing  and  interlining  to  suit  the  particular  case  in  hand;  and 
several  forms  could  be  obtained  from  publishers  of  technical 
books.  This  practice  is  not  general  now,  perhaps  because  the 
greater  complexity  and  variety  of  modern  methods  and  appliances 
of  construction  make  the  labor  of  altering  a  printed  specification 
almost  as  great  as  that  involved  in  writing  a  new  one;  but  such 
specifications  are  very  useful  in  calling  the  attention  of  young 
architects  and  superintendents,  as  well  as  of  owners,  to  the  mul- 
titudinous details  which  must  be  provided  for  in  building  opera- 
tions, and  a  form  of  the  kind,  for  a  frame  dwelling-house,  is  incor- 
porated in  the  present  work. 

Where  the  superintendent  is  working  under  the  direction  of 
an  architect,  or  is  himself  the  architect,  he  should  not  fail  to  have 
a  copy  of  the  actual  specification  on  which  the  contract  under  his 
charge  is  based  within  reach  at  all  times  during  his  visits  to  the 
work ;  and  his  last  duty  will  be  to  go  through  the  entire  building, 
specification  in  hand,  checking  off,  one  by  one,  the  items  in  regard 
to  labor  and  materials,  which  he  positively  knows,  by  the  evidence 
of  his  own  senses,  to  have  been  strictly  complied  with.  The  con- 


4  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

tract  itself  should,  also,  be  familiar  to  the  superintendent;  and 
although  the  subject  of  building  contracts  in  general  is  far  too 
extensive  to  be  treated  in  a  single  chapter,  and  can  best  be  studied, 
perhaps,  in  the  present  writer's  work  on  "Architect,  Owner  and 
Builder  Before  the  Law,"  it  has  seemed  desirable  to  include  in 
this  book  a  few  observations  on  the  most  important  principles 
involved  in  making  and  enforcing  them. 

One  or  two  preliminary  remarks  may  be  made  before  describ- 
ing the  actual  process  of  inspection. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  necessary  for  the  superintendent  to  be 
as  familiar  as  possible  with  the  plans  and  other  drawings  of  the 
building  to  be  constructed.  Nothing  is  of  so  much  service  in 
rendering  his  labors  valuable  to  his  employer  and  himself  as  the 
thorough  understanding  of  the  proposed  building  which  will 
enable  him  to  foresee  the  consequences  of  every  step,  and  to  judge 
of  the  position  and  workmanship  of  each  part  of  the  edifice,  while 
in  process  of  construction,  with  reference  to  its  final  use  and  finish. 
He  must  not  trust  blindly  to  the  accuracy  of  the  plans.  It  is 
impossible,  in  the  architect's  office,  to  avoid  all  mistakes  in  draw- 
ing or  figuring,  but  such  as  escape  the  eye  of  the  busy  professional 
man  can  easily  be  detected  by  a  little  care  in  comparing  them  with 
the  work  on  the  ground ;  and,  while  the  builder  is  legally  bound  to 
protect  the  owner  from  suffering  loss  in  consequence  of  errors  in 
the  drawings  or  figures  which  he  might,  with  reasonable  care, 
have  detected,  and  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  architect  for 
correction,  the  superintendent,  as  the  more  immediate  representa- 
tive of  the  architect,  is  under  peculiar  obligation  to  compare  figures 
with  each  other,  or  details  with  general  drawings,  and  facilitate 
to  the  utmost  of  his  power  the  smooth,  rapid  and  successful 
prosecution  of  the  work  put  in  his  charge.  Not  only  should  he 
in  this  way  endeavor  to  satisfy  himself  of  the  accuracy  of  the 
drawings,  but  he  should  also  look  out  beforehand  for  other  points 
which  may  affect  or  hinder  the  construction  when  once  begun. 
If,  for  instance,  the  drawings  show  stone  and  brick  work  bonded 
together  in  elevation,  it  should  be  his  duty  at  once  to  procure 
bricks  of  the  kind  to  be  used  in  the  facing,  and  lay  them  up  with 
mortar  joints  of  the  usual  or  specified  width,  in  order  to  ascertain 
with  certainty  the  height  which  a  given  number  of  courses  of 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  5 

brick  will  lay.  It  is  common  in  such  work  to  assume  that  five 
courses  of  brick  will  lay  one  foot  in  height,  and  the  detail  drawings 
for  the  stonework  are  often  made  and  figured  accordingly.  If, 
then,  as  often  happens,  the  particular  brick  used  is  a  little  thicker 
or  thinner  than  the  standard,  the  stone  once  cut  from  an  incorrect 
assumption  will  fail  to  bond  properly,  and,  if  it  cannot  be  recut, 
must  either  be  thrown  away  or  inserted  as  best  it  may,  the  wide 
joints  and  irregular  lines  bearing  witness  to  the  incompetency  of 
the  one  who  directed  the  work. 

Even  supposing  the  plans  to  be  correct,  the  superintendent  will 
find  many  opportunities  for  saving  both  contractor  and  owner 
from  the  annoyance  and  expense  caused  by  the  carelessness  of 
workmen.  It  is  impossible  to  get  the  ordinary  mechanic  to  con- 
cern himself  about  the  future  matters  which  will  depend  upon  his 
work,  and  a  little  foresight  in  supervision  will  prevent  many 
careless  deviations  from  the  drawings  or  specifications,  which, 
although  the  contractor  would  be  bound  to  correct  them,  he  will 
be  glad  to  have  detected  in  season  to  save  him  that  expense,  and 
will  show  his  gratitude  by  special  endeavor  to  please.  Another 
important  point  in  efficient  supervision  is,  after  inspecting  the 
materials  delivered,  to  make  sure  that  those  rejected  are  removed 
from  the  premises.  If  they  are  marked  for  rejection,  as  they 
should  always  be,  let  the  mark  be  on  the  face  of  the  cracked  or 
thin  stone,  or  on  the  upper  side  of  a  "waney"  floor-board,  so  that 
it  can  be  recognized  if  it  should  be  afterwards  put  into  the  work. 
If  this  precaution  is  not  taken,  and  if  the  marks  are  not  made  in 
such  a  manner  that  they  cannot  be  rubbed  or  planed  off,  materials 
once  discarded  will  be  smuggled  into  the  building  in  spite  of  the 
injunctions  of  the  superintendent  or  contractor. 

It  is  impossible  to  be  too  thorough  in  each  periodical  inspection 
of  the  building.  It  will  not  do  to  examine  one  portion  one  day 
and  another  the  next ;  the  proper  way  is  to  go  all  over  the  structure 
at  each  visit.  Wherever  a  man  is  working,  or  has  been  working 
since  the  last  inspection,  go  and  see  what  he  has  done.  In  this 
way  it  will  be  possible  to  gain  that  definite  knowledge  of  every 
portion  of  the  structure  which  is  the  only  security  against  con- 
cealed vices  of  workmanship. 

One  other  precaution  must  be  observed:  let  not  the  young 


6  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

architect  put  too  much  faith  in  what  workmen  say  to  him.  The 
best  of  them  dislike  to  pull  down  or  change  what  is  already  done, 
and  if  inadvertency  or  temporary  convenience  has  led  them  into 
palpable  violations  of  the  specifications,  they  will  often  stretch  the 
truth  considerably  in  their  explanations  and  excuses.  Some  are 
much  worse  than  this,  and  will  deliberately  avail  themselves  of 
the  credulity  and  inexperience  of  the  young  architect  under  whose 
authority  they  come  to  obtain  from  him,  both  before  and  after  the 
execution  of  the  work,  such  concessions  from  and  interpretations 
of  the  strict  letter  of  the  specifications  as  will  be  most  to  their 
profit.  It  is  difficult  for  one  who  is  not  quite  certain  that  he  knows 
how  to  distinguish  between  fresh  and  damaged  cement,  for  in- 
stance, to  persist  in  rejecting  a  lot  of  which  he  has  suspicions,  but 
which  the  builder  declares  to  be  not  only  of  the  best  quality,  but 
the  only  lot  of  that  quality  which  can  be  procured  without  seriously 
delaying  the  work ;  and  if  the  superintendent  is  found  to  be  acces- 
sible to  such  representations,  his  credulity  is  sure  to  be  tested  on 
many  other  points.  The  only  way  in  which  young  architects  can 
escape  being  occasionally  made  victims  of  such  practices,  is  for 
them  to  make  up  their  minds  what  is  right  by  the  best  light  that 
they  can,  and  insist  on  their  directions  being  followed.  With  a 
little  thought,  and  assiduous  study  of  other  buildings  in  process  of 
construction,  it  need  rarely  happen  that  their  orders  will  be  unrea- 
sonable, and  a  firm  stand  on  such  occasions  as  arise  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  work  will  not  only  make  their  subsequent  duty  much 
lighter  and  pleasanter,  but  will  often  save  them  ultimate  discredit 
and  regret. 

These  preliminary  remarks  are  applicable  to  every  kind  of 
building.  Others  might  be  added,  but  as  they  may  perhaps  be 
better  understood  and  remembered  in  connection  with  some  prac- 
tical illustration,  it  will  be  as  well  to  defer  their  consideration  until 
they  present  themselves  in  treating  of  a  particular  class  of  work. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  A  STONE  CHURCH 

CHAPTER   I 

THERE  are  many  advantages  in  beginning  the  study  of  con- 
struction with  stone  buildings.  Such  structures  require  a  minute- 
ness of  attention,  and  a  precision  and  accuracy  of  workmanship, 
superior  to  that  which  is  generally  bestowed  upon  buildings  of  any 
other  material,  and  the  careful  and  continual  measuring,  levelling 
and  verifying  which  they  demand,  together  with  the  foresight 
which  must  be  exercised  in  order  that  all  parts  of  the 
masonry  and  wood-work  may  come  together  without  Construction 
error,  tend  to  form  habits  which  are  of  great  value  Buildings 
in  the  direction  of  any  kind  of  building  operation. 
Moreover,  the  construction  of  most  stone  buildings  involves  calcu- 
lations of  thrust ;  of  pressures,  vertical  and  oblique ;  the  resistance 
of  materials,  and  many  other  technical  problems  well  fitted  to 
exercise  and  develop  the  capacity  of  the  young  professional  man, 
while  the  comparative  slowness  with  which  they  are  erected 
affords  him  sufficient  time  for  a  careful  consideration  and  solution 
of  such  questions,  which  is  not  always  possible  in  the  case  of 
lighter  structures. 

If  it  is  considered  also  that  stone-masonry  of  some  kind  enters 
into  nearly  all  building  operations,  and  that  foundation-works, 
even  of  light  erections,  sometimes  require  the 
overcoming  of  serious  difficulties,  the  pro- 
priety of  introducing  the  general  subject  by 
its  most  intricate  and  technical  branch  will  be 
sufficiently  plain. 

The  church,  of  which  we  propose  to  fol- 
low the  construction,  is  intended  to  be  situated  on  an  elevated 
ground,  descending  irregularly  toward  the  east.     The  soil  ap- 

(7) 


8 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  2 


pears  to  be  gravelly,  but  variations  in  the  appearance  of  the  grass 
over  the  lot  indicate  that  the  sub-soil  is  not  uniform.     The  total 

difference  in  the  level  of  the  ground  in 
the  length  of  the  proposed  building  is 
about  six  feet. 

The  church  is  to  be  cruciform  in 
plan,  with  clerestory  and  nave  aisles ;  the 
chancel  to  be  without  aisles,  as  wide  as 
the  nave,  and  with  a  semicircular  apsidal 
termination.  The  principal  entrance  is 
to  be  through  the  tower,  which  stands  at 
the  southwest  angle,  forming  the  termi- 
nation of  the  south  aisle  of  the  nave,  and  there  is  a  second  entrance, 
opening  into  the  transept  through  a  small  enclosed  porch  which 
occupies  the  angle  between  the  transept, 
whichhas  considerable  projection, and  the 
south  aisle  of  the  nave.  East  of  the  north 
transept  is  the  organ  chamber  with  wide 
openings  into  transept  and  chancel.  The 
corresponding  angle  between  the  south 
transept  and  the  chancel  is  occupied  by  Flg>  3 
the  robing-room,  with  private  entrance  from  the  outside.  Under 
the  chancel  is  a  society-room,  entered  directly  by  steps  from  the 
outside.  The  rest  of  the  space  under  the  build- 
ing is  used  for  a  cellar,  reached  by  a  circular 
stone  staircase  in  a  staircase-turret  attached  to 
the  main  tower.  The  same  stair  ascends  also 
to  the  bell-chamber.  The  whole  building,  in- 
cluding the  spire,  is  faced  with  brown  freestone 
from  the  floor-line  upward.  The  basement 
wall,  from  the  floor-level  to  the  ground,  is 
faced  with  granite.  The  foundation-walls, 
and  the  backing  of  the  walls  above  ground,  are 
of  a  slaty  local  stone.  The  spire  and  staircase- 
turret  are  backed  with  brick. 

In  the  interior,  the  clerestory  arches,  and 
the  caps  and  bases  of  the  columns  which  carry 
them,  are  of  Ohio  freestone.     The  plinths  and  shafts  of  the  col- 


Fig.  4 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


Ashlar 


umns  are  granite,  the  shafts  being  polished.  The  chancel  steps 
are  of  marble ;  the  vestibules  are  tiled  with  marble ;  and  the  chan- 
cel floor  is  laid  with  encaustic  tiles.  The  outside  steps  are  granite, 
and  the  winding  stair  in  the  turret  is  of  hard  brown  sandstone. 

The  exterior  stone  facing  is  specified  to  be  "neat  random 
ashlar,  quarry- face,  with  pitched  joints."  This  means  that  all 
the  exposed  surfaces  are  to  be  freshly  split,  without 
weather-worn  faces,  such  as  would  be  admissible  if 
rock-face  were  specified,  and  that  the  joints,  instead  of  irregularly 
projecting,  as  is  permissible  in  some  engineering  work  (Fig.  i), 
are  to  be  "pitched  off"  to  a  line  previously  drawn  around  the  stone, 

all  parts  of  which  lie  in  a  true  plane  at 
right  angles  with  the  surfaces  formed  by 
the  joints.  This  is  done  with  a  "pitching 
tool,"  or  wide  chisel  with  a  very  thick 
edge  {Fig.  2)  and  the  result  is  to  furnish 
blocks  which,  however  rough  Modes  of 
and  projecting  in  the  centre,  Dressing 
all  possess  four  well-defined  stone 
edges,  by  means  of  which  they  can  be 
placed  upon  and  beside  each  other  with  as 
much  accuracy  as  the  smooth-  Pitched 
est-faced  stones,  presenting  Joints 
a  surface  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  3. 
Other  parts  of  the  exterior  stone-work 
are  differently  treated;  the  spire  is  to  be 

a  "broach"  <Fis-  5)' and  the  arrises> or 

edges,  of  the  octagonal  spire,  as  well  as  of 
the  broaches,  are  to  have  chiselled  draft 
lines  (Fig.  4)  two  inches  wide.  There  will  be  also  draft 
lines  one  and  one-half  inches  wide  around  all  openings ;  and  the 
reveals  of  openings,  together  with  all  cornices,  copings,  weather- 
ings of  buttresses,  washes  of  sills,  roof  of  staircase-turret,  and 
bands  in  spire,  will  be  crandled ;  that  is,  brought  to  a 
plane  surface  by  means  of  the  crandle  (Fig.  6),  which 
is  a  toothed  hatchet  composed  of  eight  or  ten  pointed  chisels 
wedged  tightly  into  a  frame  with  a  handle.  With  this  tool  the 
surface  of  the  stone  is  obliquely  struck  until  the  inequalities  have 


Crandle 


IO 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


been  reduced,  and  the  surface  is  covered  with  short  parallel  fur- 
rows, all  running  in  the  same  direction.  (Fig.  7.)  The  position 
of  the  workman  is  then  changed,  and  the  tool 
applied  in  the  other  direction,  so  as  to  make 
furrows  crossing  the  first.  By  this  means  a 
comparatively  smooth  surface  is  formed,  cov- 
ered with  a  net-work  of  lines.  (Fig.  9.)  Be- 
fore beginning  the  work  a 
line  is  drawn  around  the 
stone,  and  the  joints  either 
pitched  off  to  this  line,  as  be- 
fore described,  or  a  chisel 
draft  sunk  all  around  the 
face  until  the  line  is  reached.  &&  7 

(Fig.  8.)  Whichever  mode  is  adopted,  by  removing 
the  rough  projections  of  the  central  portion  first  with 
a  toothed  chisel  and  then  with  the  crandle,  until  it  is 
reduced  to  the  plane  of  the  draft  line,  a  true  surface  is 
obtained.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  first  opera- 
tion in  all  stone-cutting  is  to  form  the  joints,  and  from  these  four 
surfaces  at  right  angles  to  each  other  (Fig. 
10),  all  the  other  bounding  planes  of  the 
finished  stones  are  derived. 

The  tracery  of  the  windows  is  droved; 
that  is,  finished  by  working  over 
the  entire  surface  with  a  wide  Figl 


Fig.  6 


Droving 


chisel,  so  as  to  cover  it  with  parallel  lines,  all  running  in  the  same 
direction,  except  around  arches,  where  they  radiate  from  the  same 
centre  as  the  curve  of  the  arch.  (Fig.  u.) 

Of  the  granite,  the  ashlar  is  quarry- faced,  with  pitched  joints 
like  the  sandstone.     The  "wash,"  or  upper  in- 
clined surface  of  the  water-table,  is  pene  ham- 
mered;  that   is,   pounded   with   a 

Hammering    heav>r'   doubled-edged  hatchet,   or 
"pene  hammer,"  until  the  inequal- 
ities are  chipped  away,  and  the  surface  is  re- 
duced to  a  plane,  determined  by  draft  lines  previously  drawn, 
and    covered    with    coarse   parallel    lines.     The    outside    steps, 


Fig.  9 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

and    the    reveals    and    sills    of    basement   openings, 
further    finish,    by    being    pounded    all    over,    after 


II 


receive 
the 


pene 


Bush 
Hammering 


hammer  has  done  its  work,  with  a  "bush  hammer,"  or  as 
some  say,  "patent  hammer,"  in  which  several  par- 
allel blades  are  bolted  into  an  iron  frame  with  a 
handle.  This  instrument  (Fig.  12)  also  leaves  par- 
allel marks  on  the  stone,  but  much  finer  than  those  of  the  pene 
hammer.  For  the  outside  work,  a  tool  having  six  blades  to  the 

inch  will  give  a  sufficiently 
smooth  surface,  which  is 
specified  as  "six-cut."  The 
plinths  of  the  interior  columns 
are  first  pene  hammered,  then 
mVjtfffl?  six-cut,  and  finally  "ten-cut," 

with  a  bush  hammer  having 
ten  blades  to  the  inch,  which 
Eight  blades  would  give  an 
and  beds  of  the  granite  are 


I0 


leaves   the  stone  very  smooth. 

intermediate  finish.     The  joints 

"pointed,"  or  brought  to  a  roughly  plane  surface  by  means  of 

the  "point,"  a  short,  thick  chisel,  with  a  very  short  edge,  often  less 

than  a  quarter-inch  in  length. 

The  interior  capitals  and  a  portion  of  the  arch  mouldings,  as 
well  as  the  finials  and  some  other  outside  work,  are  carved.  The 
marble  steps  to  the  chancel  are  polished.  In  the  carved  work  it  is 
important  to  leave  all  the  marks  of  the  chisel  untouched.  Inferior 
workmen  sometimes  smooth  and  rasp  the  carving,  to  the  de- 
struction of  its  crispness  and  beauty.  The  rest  of  the  interior 
freestone,  on  the  contrary,  will  be  rubbed. 
This  is  usually  done  by  laying  stones  sawed 
to  a  suitable  thickness,  either  with  steel 
blades  supplied  with  sand  and  water, 
or  with  the  much  more  rapid  dia- 
mond  saw,  face  downward  on  a  large 
mill-stone  revolving  horizontally. 
This  smooths  off  the  lines  left  by  the 
saw,  and  the  surface  thus  given  is  left 
to  form  the  face  of  the  work.  The  granite  shafts  are  polished 
by  machinery,  emery  of  different  grades  being  first  used,  after 


12 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  12 


the  stone  is  brought  to  a  smooth  surface  with  tools;  followed 
by  "tin  putty,"  or  precipitated  oxide  of  tin,  which  produces  a 
glass-like  lustre.  For  red  granite,  the  so-called  jewellers'  rouge, 
or  crocus,  which  is  really  an  oxide  of  iron,  is  used  for  polish- 
ing, and  the  particles  which  find  their  way  into  the  crevices 
of  the  granite  are  allowed  to  remain,  for  the  sake  of  heightening 
the  color.  Occasionally  the  final  gloss  is  given  with  wax,  but  this 
fraud  can  be  detected  by  the  application  of  a  hot  cloth,  or  by 
exposure  to  the  weather,  which  quickly  removes 
the  lustre  so  obtained. 

The  roof  is  open-timbered,  with  hammer- 
beam  trusses  and  arched  ribs,  the  trusses,  as  well 
as  the  purlins,  being  of  hard  Southern  pine.  The 
trusses  are  covered  with  matched  pine  boards,  tarred 
felt,  and  slate,  and  the  panels  formed  by  the  purlins 
and  trusses  are  lathed  and  plastered.  A  panelled 
wainscot,  four  feet  high,  runs  around  the  room. 

The  interior  of  the  tower,  which  forms  a  vestibule, 
^  is  lined  with  a  four-inch  wall  of  face-brick,  separated 
by  a  two-inch  air-space  from  the  outside  wall,  but 
tied  to  it  with  iron  anchors.  This  lining  extends  the 
whole  height  to  a  ceiling  of  moulded  girders,  forming 
panels  filled  with  matched-and-beaded  sheathing,  and 
covered  with  tin  on  top.  The  space  above  this,  though 
accessible  from  the  staircase-turret,  is  left  rough,  up  to  the  "bell- 
deck,"  also  covered  with  tin,  on  which  stands  the  framing  for  the 
peal  of  bells,  which  should  be  as  far  as  possible  independent  of  the 
tower  walls. 

The  interior  of  the  society-room  beneath  the  chancel  is  lined 
with  a  four-inch  brick  wall,  separated  by  a  two-inch  air-space  from 
the  outside  masonry,  and  tied  to  it  with  iron,  and  is  plastered  on 
the  inner  brickwork.  The  walls  of  the  robing-room  and  organ- 
chamber  are  furred,  lathed  and  plastered.  The  tiled  floors  of  the 
vestibules  and  chancel  are  set  on  bricks  laid  upon  boarding  cut  in 
between  the  beams.  All  the  other  floors  are  double,  the  under 
boards  of  spruce  throughout,  and  the  upper  flooring  of  Georgia 
pine  in  the  society-room,  elsewhere  of  white  pine.  Interior  finish 
is  of  hard  wood. 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  ^ 

The  foregoing  description  contains  a  brief  abstract  of  the 
specifications.  In  accordance  with  these  the  contract  has  been 
signed,  and  the  builder,  or  the  contractor  for  the  excavation,  as 
the  case  may  be,  meets  the  architect  upon  the  ground  to  lay  out 
the  work.  If  a  special  plan  has  been  prepared,  with  the  exact 
dimensions  of  the  walls  and  the  lengths  of  the  diagonals  in  plain 
figures  upon  it,  the  setting-out  will  be  much  simplified, 
and  there  will  be  less  danger  of  mistake,  but  the  cellar 
plan  is  often  the  only  drawing  provided  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  the  additions  or  subtractions  necessary  to  give  the 
dimensions  of  the  trenches  must  be  made  on  the  spot. 

In  important  works  it  is  best  to  call  upon  an  engineer  to  set  out 
the  lines,  but  circumstances  may  make  it  necessary  to  do  without 
such  professional  aid.  In  any  case,  the  architect  should  always  be 
present. 

Some  builders,  and  a  few  architects,  possess  an  engineer's  com- 
pass, by  means  of  which  they  can  "turn  off"  the  various  angles 
around  the  building  with  precision ;  but  in  most  cases  the  parties 
will  arrive  at  the  spot  furnished  only  with  a  tape-measure,  a  few 
stakes,  and  a  "mason's  square,"  consisting  of  three  pieces  of  wood 
nailed  together  in  such  a  way  as  once  to  have  formed,  perhaps,  a 
right-angled  triangle.  Even  these  rude  instruments  will,  how- 
ever, suffice,  if  the  tape  is  accurate,  and  especially  if  the  architect 
has  had  the  forethought  to  bring  a  second  tape,  which  will  much 
facilitate  matters. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  stake  out  the  outside  lines  of 
the  main  walls  of  the  building,  the  "ashlar  lines,"  as  they  are 
called.  Many  persons  neglect  these  in  the  first  laying  out,  and 
run  only  the  exterior  lines  of  the  cellar-wall,  which  usually  pro- 
jects three  or  four  inches  beyond  the  ashlar  lines ;  but  the  danger 
of  mistakes  is  much  lessened,  and  the  work  in  the  end  simplified, 
by  setting  out  at  the  beginning  the  perimeter  of  the  main  walls, 
a*nd  then  drawing  parallel  lines  outside  of  these  to  indicate  the  face 
of  basement-walls,  or  the  line  of  excavation,  as  the  case  may  be. 
By  this  means  the  exact  relation  of  foundation  and  superstructure 
is  shown  at  a  glance,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  a  line  drawn  to 
indicate  the  face  of  the  foundation  being  mistaken  for  the  ashlar 
line,  and  the  wall  being  built  several  inches  outside  of  it,  as  some- 


\ 


!4  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

times  happens  where  only  one  line  is  given  at  first,  much  to  the 
detriment  of  subsequent  work. 

The  staking  out  of  the  plan  must  begin  by  the  establishment 
of  some  main  rectangle  or  triangle,  to  which  the  various  projec- 
tions can  be  added  one  after  the  other.     In  this  instance,  the 
preliminary  figure  may  be  the  rectangle  formed  by  the 
Rectangle^  nave>  including  the  aisles,  from  the  west  front  as  far 
as  the  transepts.     Having  fixed  upon  the  location  of 
the  building,  the  line  of  the  west  front  is  determined,  and  upon 
this  line  is  measured  the  width  of  the  nave  with  the  aisles,  to  the 
outside  of  the  aisle  walls.     A  short  stake  should  be  driven  into 
the  ground  at  each  end,  and  a  copper  tack  in  the  head  of  the 

stakes  will  indicate  the  exact  points. 
The  next  step  is  to  run  lines  from 
these  points  at  right  angles  with  the 
first  line,  which  will  represent  the 
face  of  the  aisle  walls.     If  a  sur- 
veyor's  compass   is   at   hand,    the 
right  angle  is  easily  turned  off;  if 
-g —       not,  the  best  way  of  proceeding  is 
Fig.  I3  that  shown  in  Fig.  13,  where  A  B  is 

the  line  of  the  west  front,   X  Y 

marking  the  width  of  nave  and  aisles.  Find  from  the  plans 
the  distance  Y  T,  from  the  west  front  to  the  angle  of  the 
transept,  and  calculate  the  diagonal  distance  from  X  to  T,  by 
adding  the  squares  of  X  Y  and  Y  T,  and  extracting  the  square 
root  of  their  sum.  (The  square  of  the  hypothenuse  of  a  right- 
angled  triangle  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  on  the  legs. ) 
Then  take  two  tapes,  and  placing  the  ring  of  one  at  X,  and  of  the 
other  at  Y,  measure  from  X  on  the  first  the  length  of  the  diagonal 
just  found,  and  on  the  second  the  distance  Y  T,  and  bring  the  two 
points  together.  Mark  the  place  where  the  measurements  on  the 
two  tapes  coincide  with  another  stake  and  copper  tack. 
Diagonals9  Change  the  tapes  over,  and  measure  X  S  equal  to 
Y  T,  and  the  diagonal  Y  S  equal  to  X  T,  and  mark 
the  spot  where  the  points  again  coincide  with  a  fourth  stake  and 
tack.  Verify  the  work  by  measuring  the  distance  between  the 
two  eastern  stakes,  S  and  T,  which  should  equal  that  between  X 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  14 


Fig.  15 


and  Y.     If  the  measurements  have  been  accurately  made,  the  four 
stakes  will  form  the  corners  of  a  perfect  rectangle.     Care  must  be 
taken  to  keep  the  measuring-tape  level.    If  the  ground 
falls  in  any  direction,  the  tape  should  at  the  lowest       bePLevei 
point  be  held  up  so  that  the  ends  will  be  at  the  same 
level,  and  a  plumb-line  dropped  from  the  correct  point  on  the  tape 
to  the  ground  will  give  the  position  of  the  stake.     It  will  save 
time  and  trouble  to  have  the  lengths  of  the  diagonals  calculated 
beforehand  and  marked  on  the  plans ;  not  only  for  the  main  rectan- 
gle but  for  minor  ones. 

Perhaps  two  tapes  will  not  be  at  hand,  or  the  mathematical 

attainments  of  the  party  may  not  extend     *-*•--.- 3 — ., 

to  the  extraction  of  square  roots.     In  that 

. case,    after    setting 

out  the  line  of  the 
western  front  as 
before,  measure  off 
one  of  the  two  long  / 
sides  of  the  prelim- 
inary rectangle,  as 
nearly  at  right  an- 
gles with  the  base  of  the  line  as  possible.  By  stretching  a  string 
for  the  base  line,  with  another  for  the  long  side  of  the  rectangle, 
the  latter  can  be  brought  approximately  to  the  proper 
direction  by  the  help  of  the  mason's  square  (Fig.  14) 
or  by  the  application  of  the  "three,  four  and  five 
rule;"  which  consists  in  marking  a  point  on  one  string  three  feet 
from  the  angle,  and  on  the  other  four  feet  from  the  angle,  then 
adjusting  the  relative  position  of  the  two  until  a  straight  line 
drawn  diagonally  across  the  angle,  between  the  two  points, 
measures  exactly  five  feet.  (Fig.  15.)  Then  the  two  strings 
will  form  a  right  angle,  since  5  is  the  hypothenuse  of  a  right- 
angled  triangle  whose  other  sides  measure  4  and  3  feet. 

Having  found  the  angle  approximately  by  these  means,  a 
stake  should  be  temporarily  driven  at  the  extremity  of  the  long  side 
of  the  rectangle  so  found,  and  the  other  side  set  out  parallel  with 
this,  by  measuring  the  distance  C  D  (Fig.  16)  equal  to  A  B,  from 
the  point  C,  distant  on  a  second  line,  A  C,  as  far  from  A  as  D  is 


i6 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


distant  from  B.  Then  the  figure  A  C  D  B  will  be  a  parallelo- 
gram, since  its  opposite  sides  are  equal;  but  it  may  not  be  a 
rectangle.  As  a  test,  the  diagonals  should  be  measured.  If  they 
are  unequal,  the  figure,  instead  of  being  rectangular,  has  the  form 
of  which  Fig.  17  is  an  exaggerated  representation.  To  remedy 
this,  move  the  stake  D,  at  the  farthest  extremity  of  the  longest 
diagonal,  toward  the  stake  C,  a  distance  about  equal  to  two-thirds 
of  the  difference  in  length  between  the  two  diagonals.  Then 
move  the  stake  C  an  equal  distance  in  the  same  direction,  so  as  to 
keep  the  length  of  that  side  of  the  rectangle  correct.  Measure  the 
diagonals  again,  and  if  now  found  to  be  equal,  verify  all  the  meas- 


?.- 


A.l. 


;_„_  _D                   c 

— 

/ 

/  \ 

/ 

/   y 

/ 

/  /  \ 

/  /  •• 

i?  A//  

\i 

Fig.  16 


Fig.  17 


urements,  then  drive  the  stakes  firmly  and  set  copper  tacks  as 
before.  This  preliminary  rectangle  having  been  accurately  marked 
out,  the  rest  of  the  work  follows  easily. 

Lay  out  the  transepts  by  stretching  a  line  through  the  eastern 
side  of  the  rectangle  just  found,  prolonging  it  indefinitely  at  each 
end.  Prolong  also  the  north  and  south  sides  of  the  rectangle 
indefinitely  eastward.  Lay  off  the  projection  of  the  transept,  as 
figured  on  the  plan,  on  the  extension  of  the  east  side  of  the 
rectangle;  from  this  point,  parallel  to  the  main  axis  of  the  build- 
ing, measure  the  proper  width  of  the  transept.  Meas- 
Rcctangles  ure  the  same  distance  on  the  prolongation  of  the  north 
and  south  sides  of  the  rectangle,  and  from  the  points 
thus  found  lay  off  again,  approximately  at  a  right  angle,  the  pro- 
jection of  the  transept.  Join,  if  they  do  not  already  coincide, 
this  point  to  the  corresponding  one  found  by  measuring  parallel 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


G 


iC 


D 


to  the  axis;  the  place  of  meeting  will  be  the  true  north-east  or 
south-east  angle  of  the  transept.  Drive  stakes  at  all  the  angles 
thus  found,  and  set  copper  tacks  to  mark  the  exact  points. 

These  secondary  rectangles,  representing  the  transepts,  will 
have  their  angles  correct  without  further  trouble,  since  A  C  D  B 

having  been  made  truly  rect- 
angular, the  angle,  F  D  E, 
included  between  the  pro- 
longations of  the  lines,  D  B 
and  C  D,  which  include  a 
right  angle,  will  itself  be  a 
right  angle,  and  one  angle  of 
the  parallelogram,  D  F  G  E, 
of  which  the  opposite  sides 
are  measured  equal,  being  a 
right  angle,  the  others  are 
also  right  angles  (Fig.  18). 
To  determine  the  apsidal 

B  curve,  both  for  the  walls  and 

Pig  jg  the  excavation,  it  is  neces- 

sary to  fix  the  centre,  from 

which  an  arc  of  the  requisite  radius  can  be  struck  whenever 
needed.  (A,  Fig.  19.) 

The  usual  way  of  striking  such  an  arc  is  to  drive  a  strong 
stake  at  the  centre,  with  a  nail  or  spike  inserted  at  the  proper  place 
in  the  head  of  the  stake,  using  a  long  rod  with 
a  notch  fitting  against  the  central  spike,  and  cut  to  curve*  °f 
the  requisite  radius,  to  describe  the  curve.  At  the 
first  setting-out,  such  a  stake  may  be  driven  for  temporary  use, 
the  apsidal  semi-circle  described,  and  marked  with  a  number  of 
small  stakes  or  a  line  cut  in  the  turf  with  a  spade.  Then  the 
excavation  can  begin  at  this  line,  but  as  the  central  stake  would 
soon  be  dug  away,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  means  for  recovering 
it  at  pleasure.  This  can  best  be  done  by  fixing  points  entirely 
outside  the  excavation,  from  which  lines  can  be  stretched  which 
will  by  their  intersection  indicate  the  point  required.  For  our 
purposes  four  such  points  will  be  necessary.  Two  of  these,  J  K, 
may  with  advantage  be  situated  on  the  prolongations  of  the  lines 


i8 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


which  show  the  northern  and  southern  ashlar  lines  of  the  tran- 
septs ;  and  the  distance  from  the  angles,  G  and  H,  of  the  transepts 
should  be  twice  the  distance  from  the  centre  of  an  imaginary  line 
connecting  G  and  H  to  the  point,  A.  Then  two  cords,  one 
stretched  from  H  to  J,  and  the  other  from  G  to  K,  will  cross  each 
other  over  A.  One  more  step  remains  to  be  taken.  As  the 
stakes  which  at  first  indicate  the  actual  points,  G  and  H,  will  be 

£, ...  J 


.V" 


»  A. 


Fig.  19 


removed  by  the  excavation,  it  is  necessary  to  drive  supplementary 
stakes,  P  and  Q,  with  copper  tacks  in  their  heads,  at  any  point  on 
the  lines  just  found.  Then  cords,  stretched  from  these  interme- 
diate points,  will  serve  the  same  purpose  as  if  drawn  through  to 
G  and  H,  and  the  stakes  which  mark  them  will  not  be  disturbed. 
The  secondary  rectangles,  which  are  formed  by  the  aisles,  tower, 
porch,  robing-room,  or  organ-room,  can  be  easily  laid  out  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  described  for  the  transepts. 

As  the  stakes  which  now  mark  the  corners  of  the  building  will 
be  dug  away  as  soon  as  the  excavation  is  begun,  it  is  necessary  to 
provide  some  further  means  by  which  their  positions  can  still  be 
shown  when  the  stakes  themselves  are  removed.  This  is  done  in 
much  the  same  way  that  the  centre  of  the  apse  circle  was  fixed, — 
by  making  the  point  to  be  marked  fall  at  the  intersection  of  two 
straight  lines  drawn  from  some  more  distant  stations,  which  in 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


the  case  of  the  corners  of  a  rectangle  may  best  be  situated  on  the 
prolongations  of  its  sides,  as  shown  in  Fig.  20,  where  the  point  A 
is  marked  with  as  much  precision  by  the  intersection  of  the  lines 
stretched  from  the  indefinite  points,  X  and  Y,  as  it  would  be  by  a 
stake. 

In  practice,  the  points,  X  and  Y,  are  usually  given,  not  by 

stakes,  but  by  notches  on  horizontal  "batter-boards,"   , 

.       '  %    -  .  .     £  Batter-Boards 

which  are  nailed  to  stout  stakes,  five  or  six  feet  apart. 

(Fig.  21.) 

Two  of  these  batter-boards  are  necessary  to  determine  each 
angle  (Fig.  22),  and  as  it  is  of  great  importance  that  they  should 

ra  £1 


£?dfe*-- 


Fig.  21 


I 

j 

* 

Fig.  29 


t 


Fig.  22 


be  firm  and  permanent,  they  must  be  set  up  four  or  five  feet  back 
from  the  edge  of  the  excavation,  or  more,  if  this  is  to  be  very 
deep,  and  the  stakes  set  firmly  in  the  ground.  They  must,  more- 
over, be  as  nearly  on  a  level  as  possible,  those  which  stand  at  the 
lower  portions  of  the  site  being  raised  on  high  but  strong  stakes. 
Having  set  up  these  batter-boards  opposite  the  corners  already 
found,  lines  should  be  stretched  between  them  (Fig.  23)  so  as  to 
coincide  with  the  lines  already  marked  by  the  stakes.  Plumb- 
lines  suspended  from  the  cords  over  the  stakes  will  show  when 
they  pass  exactly  over  the  copper  tacks  which  mark  the  precise 
points  to  be  transferred,  and,  as  each  line  is  accurately  fixed,  a 
small  notch  should  be  cut  in  the  board  where  the  string  passes 


20  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

over  it.     When  all  the  lines  are  fixed  upon  the  batter-boards,  the 

first  set  of  notches  will,  if  the  ashlar  face  of  the  walls  was  taken 

v  for  the  measurements,  serve  at  any  time  to  fix  the  line 

iof  that  face  for  any  wall.  The  projection  of  the  water- 
table  or  base  course  beyond  the  ashlar  surface,  the  pro- 
jection of  the  outer  face  of  the  foundation,  the  thick- 
ness, both  of  the  foundation  and  the  superstructure,  can 
be  indicated  by  notches  on  the  batter-boards,  measured 
from  the  original  notch,  and  marked  so  that  they  can 
be  readily  distinguished,  as  shown  in  Fig.  24. 

It  is  well  to  fix  one  batter-board,  at  least,  at  the 
height  of  some  given  level  of  the  building,  as  for  in- 
Fig.  23     stance,  at  the  top  of  the  water-table.     If  an  engineer  is 
at  hand,  or  if  the  architect  or  contractor  can  use  a  level,  there  is  a 

,    great  advantage  in  setting  the  top  of  all  the  batter- 
Bench  Mark  °       ,  ,,....,  .„  , 
boards  at  exactly  this  height ;  then  the  masons  will  be 

able,  when  the  time  comes  for  setting  this  course,  to  level  across 
from  the  batter-boards  at  various  points,  and  thus  obtain  a  line 


Fig.  24 

more  perfectly  horizontal,  and  with  less  trouble,  than  would  be, 
possible  by  starting  from  a  single  point. 

The  fixing  of  the  batter-boards  completes  the  setting-out  of 
the  building,  and  a  line  may  then  be  cut  with  spades,  some  fifteen 
or  sixteen  inches  outside  of  the  original  stakes,  which  can  then  be 
removed,  and  the  work  of  excavation  begun. 

All  the  business  of  staking  out  the  building  belongs  properly 
to  the  contractor,  unless  an  engineer  is  employed,  but  the  architect 
Importance  snou^  always  be  present  to  see  it  done,  and  verify 
of  Correct  the  measurements,  and  especially  to  observe  the  ac- 
Plantation  curacy  of  the  angies.  The  crucial  test  of  the  rectan- 
gularity  of  the  lines  is  the  measurement  of  the  diagonals,  which 
should  be  insisted  upon,  and  the  stakes  shifted  patiently  until  they 
are  correct.  If  this  is  not  attended  to  at  the  outset,  the  superin- 
tendent is  very  likely  to  see  subsequently  the  upper  walls  here  and 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


21 


Fig.  25 


there  overhanging  the  foundation,  in  the  attempt  to  bring  back 
the  superstructure  to  its  proper  shape  (Fig.  25)  ;  or,  in  the  finish- 
ing, to  find  doors  and  windows  unexpectedly  cramped  or  thrown 
out  of  centre,  the  pattern  of  the 
tesselated  pavement  tapering  off  to 
nothing  at  one  end,  the  frescoed 
ceilings  misshapen,  carpets  fitting 
badly,  or  some  other  of  the  in- 
numerable vexatious  and  irremedi- 
able consequences  of  incorrect  set- 
ting-out. 

While  the  workmen  are  cutting  the  sod  in  long  strips  and 
rolling  it  up,  which  may  be  desirable  if  it  can  be  used  for  improv- 
ing portions  of  the  lot,  it  is  necessary  to  choose  places  where  the 
loam  from  the  surface  and  the  gravel  from  beneath  Disposal  of 
may  be  piled  up  separately  in  "spoil-banks,"  out  of  Excavated 
the  way  of  building  operations,  but  near  at  hand  for 
use  in  the  subsequent  grading.  Nothing  is  more  common  than 
to  see  the  earth  from  a  cellar  thrown  out  at  one  edge  of  the 
excavation,  to  be  soon  after  shovelled  over  again  in  order  to  dig 
a  place  for  some  pier  or  post ;  then,  perhaps,  the  middle  of  the  heap 
turned  over  a  third  time,  to  cut  a  trench  for  drain  or  other  pipes, 
and  finally  the  greater  part  of  the  mass  shovelled  again  into  wheel- 
barrows and  transported  half  way  around  the  building,  to  be  used 
for  grading  up  in  some  place  on  the  other  side,  where  it  might 
just  as  well  have  been  thrown  in  the  first  place. 

Let  the  young  superintendent,  therefore,  think  where  the 
gravel  is  likely  to  be  used  for  grading  or  road-building,  and  how 
the  heaps  can  be  most  conveniently  arranged,  in  reference  both  to 
its  future  use,  and  to  the  least  laborious  mode  of  bringing  it  from 
the  cellar.  The  amount  of  material  which  the  cellar  will  furnish 
can  be  approximately  estimated  with  very  little  trouble,  as  well  as 
the  quantity  which  will  be  needed  for  the  grading  about  the  build- 
ing, so  that  if  there  proves  to  be  a  surplus  which  must  be  provided 
for,  places  may  be  arranged  for  disposing  of  it,  either  in  filling  up 
hollows  about  the  lot,  grading  the  approaches,  forming  terraces, 
or  other  improvements ;  and  the  earth  may  then  be  excavated  from 
the  cellar,  hauled  to  the  place  designated,  and  dumped  in  imme- 


22  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

diately,  without  having  to  be  twice  handled.  Wherever  grass  is 
intended  to  cover  the  new  surface,  loam  must  be  piled  near,  or 
brought  from  other  parts  of  the  excavation. 

The  location  of  the  avenues  and  paths,  with  the  drainage  works 
necessary,  should  be  determined  at  the  outset,  and  marked  upon 
the  plan  which  the  superintendent  must  have  always  at  hand  to 
refer  to. 

A  large  space  on  the  most  level  part  of  the  ground,  and  not  far 
from  the  principal  entrance,  should  be  reserved  for  unloading  and 
piling  up  timber,  and  for  framing.  Room  must  also  be  left  for 
Space  to  be  delivering  stone  at  various  points  around  the  building, 
Reserved  for  and  for  other  materials.  Especially  should  the  area 
Materials  about  the  main  entrance  be  kept  free  of  obstruction. 
These  cares  properly  belong  to  the  contractor,  since  the  extra 
expense  and  delay  caused  by  re-handling  and  improper  disposal 
of  material  must  be  paid  by  him,  but  the  efficient  and  intelligent 
conduct  of  such  works  is  indirectly  advantageous  to  all  parties, 
and  the  superintendent,  by  his  greater  familiarity  with  the  plans, 
as  well,  perhaps,  as  his  superior  skill  in  interpreting  their  indica- 
tions, is  able  to  foresee  future  contingencies  more  clearly  even  than 
those  who  will  suffer  most  by  want  of  due  precaution. 

Applying  these  observations  to  our  present  building,  we  no- 
tice the  conditions  to  be  as  follows :  The  street  runs  along  the 
south  side  of  the  lot;  and  the  ground  sloping  gently  toward  the 
east,  the  best  place  for  the  entrance  roadway  will  be  near  the 
Gr  din  western  end  of  the  building,  arranging  it,  if  no  other 

considerations  oppose,  so  that  the  grade  will  ascend 
slightly  from  the  street.  This  will  be  of  advantage  in  securing 
an  outlet  for  water  into  the  street-gutters  during  heavy  rains. 
The  building  is  not  on  the  crest  of  the  hill,  the  ground  rising  con- 
tinuously westward.  It  will  therefore  be  necessary,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  water  running  down  the  hill  from  reaching  the  walls, 
which  it  would  soon  saturate,  to  grade  up  at  the  west  front  of  the 
church  sufficiently  to  turn  it  back  by  a  slight  slope  in  the  reverse 
direction ;  and  it  will  improve  the  appearance  of  the  structure  to 
have  this  graded  surface  somewhat  extensive,  so  as  to  form  a 
plateau  in  front  of  the  building,  nearly  level,  and  spacious  enough 
to  turn  a  carriage  easily.  This  level  will  be  continued  along  the 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  23 

south  wall  of  the  church  as  far  as  the  porch  opening  into  the  south 
transept,  forming  a  terrace,  wide  enough  for  a  foot-path,  and 
regaining  the  natural  surface  southward  and  eastward  by  easy 
slopes. 

The  avenue  crosses  a  small  natural  basin  before  reaching  the 
plateau,  and  beyond  it  continues  along  the  north  side  of  the  build- 
ing to  the  sheds,  which  are  situated  at  some  distance  to  the  north- 
east. A  separate  foot-path  from  the  street  leads  to  the  entrances 
of  the  robing-room  and  the  society-room  in  the  basement. 

The  gravel  from  the  excavation  will  therefore  be  principally 
needed  for  the  plateau  and  terrace  on  the  west  and  south  sides, 
and  for  the  paths  and  avenues,  and  the  loam  will  nearly  all  be  used 
on  the  south  side,  where  a  deep  soil  is  desirable  to  insure  a  good 
growth  of  grass.  It  should  therefore,  as  it  is  stripped  from  the 
surface  of  the  excavation,  be  piled  in  a  heap  south  of  the  south 
transept. 

It  will  be  very  advantageous  for  the  avenue  to  have  it  hard- 
ened by  the  traffic  of  heavy  teams  bringing  materials,  and  equally 
an  advantage  for  the  teams  to  have  a  practicable  road  for  wet 
weather,  instead  of  being  obliged  to  go  over  the  grass-land,  which 
is  soon  cut  into  a  mass  of  mud.     Hence  while  the  turf 
and  loam  are  being  stripped  off  the  site  of  the  church,        Bu?kHn 
the  driveway  should  be  staked  out,  together  with  the 
plateau  in  front  of  the  church,  and  the  terrace,  and  in  order  that 
the  new  material  may  unite  with  the  subsoil  beneath,  the  surface 
should  be  ploughed,  the  loam  taken  off,  and  added  to  the  main 
"spoil-bank." 

As  fast  as  this  is  done,  a  gang  of  laborers  should  dig  a  trench 
eighteen  inches  wide  and  two  feet  deep  on  each  side  of  the  road- 
way, throwing  the  gravel  into  the  middle;  and  then  fill  these 
trenches  half  full  of  stones,  put  six  inches  of  hay  or  straw  over  the 
stones,  and  throw  back  gravel  enough  to  fill  the  trenches. 

This  French  drain,  or  trench  filled  with  stones,  should  be  con- 
tinued around  the  side  of  the  plateau  next  the  hill,  and  made  con- 
siderably deeper  in  that  place — three  to  six  feet,  according  to  the 
springiness  of  the  soil.  The  object  of  it  is  to  prevent  water  from 
working  in  at  the  sides  and  softening  the  gravel  of  the  road  just 
below  the  surface,  breaking  this  up,  however  hard  it  may  have 


24  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

become.  If  stones  cannot  be  had,  agricultural  drain-tile  may  be 
laid  in  the  trench,  and  the  joints  covered  over  with  a  piece  of  cloth 
before  filling  up  with  gravel.  The  road  thus  defended  against  the 
undermining  influence  of  water  from  the  sides  will  soon  be  dry 
and  hard,  though,  below  the  general  surface,  and  ready  for  the 
gravel-carts  which  will  by  this  time  be  ready  to  bring  their  loads 
from  the  cellar  excavation,  coming  to  the  surface  by  a  runway  at 
the  eastern  end,  where  the  height  is  least,  and  passing  along  the 
rudimentary  avenue  at  the  north  side  of  the  building  to  deposit 
them,  first  on  the  plateau,  until  that  is  brought  up  to  the  height 
required,  and  then  upon  the  avenue,  a  sufficient  quantity  being 
dumped  in  the  hollow  near  the  end  to  bring  up  the  grade  to  a 
uniform  slope  with  the  rest. 

Besides  the  deep  intercepting  drain  around  the  upper  edge  of 
the  plateau,  it  is  best  in  all  but  the  most  porous  soils  to  make 
another  French  drain  under  the  plateau  itself,  in  the  shape  of  a  V, 
the  vertex  of  which  points  up  the  hill,  while  the  extremities  of  the 
legs  end  in  the  road  drains,  one  to  the  north  and  the  other  to  the 
south  of  the  western  end  of  the  church.  This  will  prevent  the 
water  which  falls  upon  or  gets  in  beneath  the  fresh  surface  of  the 
plateau  from  running  along  the  comparatively  hard,  sloping 
stratum  of  natural  soil  beneath  toward  the  foundation  walls  of  the 
building,  which  will  soon  be  penetrated  by  its  persistent  flow.  It 
will  be  best  to  leave  the  avenues  at  a  grade  about  six  inches  below 
the  final  level.  If  well  drained  they  will  soon  become  hard  under 
the  heavy  traffic,  and  a  final  coating  of  six  inches  of  screened 
gravel  at  the  completion  of  the  building,  brought  to  a  neat  surface, 
will  give  a  good  and  durable  finish  to  the  work. 

The  terracing  along  the  south  side  may  be  provided  for  most 
economically,  if  the  ground  is  firm;  by  directing  the  excavated 
material  on  that  side  to  be  thrown  out  on  the  bank  without  loading 
into  carts ;  but  if  the  soil  is  soft  or  sandy,  the  edge  of  the  excava- 
tion must  not  be  weighted  with  material  until  the  cellar  walls  are 
built,  or  it  is  liable  to  cave  in. 

The  contractor  for  the  building  is  not  obliged  to  do  all  these 
works,  unless  they  are  mentioned  in  the  specification  or  contract. 
In  general,  if  there  is  no  agreement  otherwise,  the  builder  is 
expected  to  take  off  and  reserve  the  sods,  transport  and  pile  the 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  25 

loam  and  gravel  separately  wherever  directed  within  the  bounds 
of  a  reasonably  large  lot,  but  he  would  not  be  expected  to  spread 
and  level  the  material,  except  about  the  building,  unless  such 
levelling  were  mentioned  specifically.  The  other  works  men- 
tioned, although  they  are  best  carried  on  at  the  same  time, 
would  be  included  in  a  separate  contract  in  connection  with  the 
subsequent  terracing,  planting,  sodding,  or  gardener's  work 
which  might  be  determined  upon  for  the  general  adornment  of 
the  lot. 

To  recapitulate  the  most  important  things  to  be  remembered, 
and  precautions  to  be  observed  in  first  laying  out  the  Recapitu- 
building  and  starting  the  work : —  lation 

Examine  the  figures  on  the  plans,  to  see  if  they  are  correct. 

See  that  the  steel  or  other  tapes  used  are  divided  into  feet  and 
inches,  not  into  feet  and  tenths  of  a  foot. 

Stake  out  provisionally  the  actual  ashlar  lines  of  the  building. 

Measure  the  diagonals  of  the  principal  rectangles. 

Transfer  the  lines  given  by  the  stakes  to  batter-boards,  perma- 
nently fixed.  If  the  ground  is  not  level,  or  nearly  so,  the  hori- 
zontal dimensions  must  be  measured  level,  and  transferred  to  the 
stakes  by  a  plumb-line.  After  determining  the  ashlar  lines,  the 
foundation-walls  should  be  marked  on  the  batter-boards,  and  the 
lines  of  the  excavation  given  about  eight  inches  outside  the  face  of 
the  foundations. 

Set  some  permanent  mark  representing  either  the  top  of  the 
floor-beams,  the  water-table,  or  any  other  convenient  level,  provid- 
ing carefully  for  the  change  in  the  surface  of  the  ground  which 
will  be  made  by  the  subsequent  grading.  Write  distinctly  on  this 
stake  or  "bench  mark"  the  level  which  it  is  intended  to  represent, 
and  also  the  depth  of  the  cellar  bottom  below  it,  allowing  three 
inches  for  concrete. 

Consider  and  decide  about  the  laying  out  of  the  lot,  and  if  any 
of  the  avenues  can  be  used  in  the  building  operations  have  them 
immediately  staked  out,  cleared  of  loam,  and  drained. 

Confer  with  the  contractor  in  regard  to  the  most  convenient 
place  for  delivering  the  materials  and  dumping  gravel.  Explain 
to  him  the  future  plan  of  grading,  and  interest  him  in  your 
provisions  for  avoiding  unnecessary  handling  of  the  earth,  so  that 


26  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

your  directions  may  not  seem  arbitrary.  Remember  to  leave 
spaces  as  follows : — 

Not  less  than  2,500  square  feet  for  piles  of  lumber. 

Two  or  three  plots  of  500  square  feet  each  for  brick  and  rubble. 

About  500  square  feet  for  other  materials. 

These  to  be  near  the  building,  but  leaving  space  for  heavy  teams 
to  drive  up,  unload,  turn,  and  go  out.  Space  may  also  be  needed 
near  the  street  as  follows : — 

1,000  square  feet  for  stone-cutting  sheds. 
1,000  square  feet  for  rough  blocks  of  stone. 

Determine  the  position  of  the  main  provisional  entrance,  and 
keep  the  approach  to  it  clear.  This  entrance  need  not  necessarily 
be  one  of  the  regular  church  doors.  In  this  instance,  the  main 
access  to  the  church,  through  the  tower,  is  somewhat  tortuous  for 
the  introduction  of  long  timbers  or  other  bulky  materials,  so  that  it 
will  be  best  to  provide  a  temporary  one,  which  can  be  done  by 
leaving  the  arch  of  the  large  west  window  open  down  to  the 
ground.  When  the  necessity  for  so  large  an  entrance  is  over,  the 
wall  can  easily  be  built  up  as  high  as  the  sill. 

SECOND  VISIT 

We  will  suppose  that  the  matters  treated  of  in  the  foregoing 
notes  have  been  satisfactorily  disposed  of,  and  the  laborers  have 
been  some  days  at  work.  By  this  time  it  will  be  necessary  to 
appear  again  upon  the  ground.  The  second  visit  finds  the  loam 
removed,  and  the  excavation  completed  down  to  the  cellar  bottom 
at  the  western  end.  Teams  are  hauling  rubble-stone  for  cellar 
walls,  and  a  car-load  of  staging  lumber  has  arrived  on  the  ground. 

Let  the  superintendent  begin  by  going  all  around  the  outside 
of  the  building,  comparing  the  excavated  lines  with 
Inspection      t^ie  mar^s  on  tne  batter-boards.    Any  mistakes  should 
be  pointed  out  at  once,  before  they  are  driven  from 
the  mind  by  other  matters.    Next  let  him  make  the  tour  of  the  in- 
side of  the  excavation,  examining  the  bank  carefully.    He  finds  the 
Appearance   ground  at  the  lower,  or  eastern  end  to  be  a  fine  gravel 
of  the  mixed  with  stones.     The  bank  at  the  upper  end,  for 

Excavation    £ye  or  sjx  ^eet  |De]ow  fae  surface,  is  composed  of  a 

similar  gravel,  but  below  this  appears  a  stratum  of  greenish  clay, 
hard  at  the  upper  part,  but  softening  into  mud  below.  The  clay 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


Clay  Stratum 


continues  along  the  bank  to  the  site  of  the  tower,  where  it  ends  in 
a  large  mass  of  loose  slaty  rock,  from  which  water  trickles  rapidly. 
The  south  side  of  the  tower  excavation  shows  only  gravel. 

These  appearances  demand  careful  consideration,  for  they 
indicate  a  state  of  affairs  involving  both  serious  dangers  to  be 
overcome,  and  costly  extra  works  to  be  planned,  and  the  payment 
for  them  satisfactorily  arranged. 

The  operations  which  will  be  necessary  in  the  present  case  will 
be  best  understood  by  going  through  a  process  of  reasoning  sim- 
ilar to  that  which  should  occupy  the  superintendent's  mind  on 
viewing  the  circumstances. 

The  appearance  of  the  hard  clay  stratum  a  short  distance  be- 
low the  gravel  at  the  upper  side  of  the  excavation  warns  us  that  it 
is  first  of  all  necessary  to  cut  off  the  water  which  in 
rainy  weather  will  soak  through  the  gravel,  and  col- 
lecting on  top  of  the  clay  will  follow  it  down  hill  in  a  wide,  shallow 
sheet,  so  that  the  foundation  wall,  at  the  line  where  the  clay 

stratum  comes  against  it,  would  soon 
be  soaked.  We  have  had  the  trench- 
es cut  eight  inches  wider  than  the 
wall,  expressly  for  the  purpose  of 
allowing  this  to  be  built  up  smooth 
and  independent  on  the  outside,  and 
protecting  it  by  filling  the  vacant 
space  with  gravel,  which  will  inter- 
cept a  part  of  the  descending  sheet, 
but  this  is  not  enough ;  a  trench  must 
be  dug  a  few  feet  in  front  of  the  west 
wall  of  the  church,  deep  enough  to 
cut  into  the  clay  stratum  the  whole  length.  If  the  clay  bed  slopes 
northward  or  southward,  as  well  as  eastward,  the  trench  may 
follow  it  downward,  discharging  into  one  of  the  road  drains. 
(Fig.  26.)  If  its  section  in  that  direction  is  horizontal,  the 
trench  may  take  the  form  of  a  shallow  V,  with  an  outlet  at  each 
end.  These  trenches  are  to  be  half  filled  with  loose  stones,  cov- 
ered with  straw  or  hay,  and  filled  up  with  gravel. 

The  water  descending  the  hill  on  the  surface  of  the  clay 
stratum  is  thus  completely  intercepted,  and  if  it  were  not  for  the 


Fig.  26 


2g  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

ledge  of  rock,  which,  as  we  have  ascertained,  extends  beneath  the 
clay  bed,  there  would  be  no  need  of  any  further  precautions,  unless 
to  give  a  little  extra  depth  to  the  trenches  in  the  clay,  to  insure 
against  the  effects  of  frost,  which  will  penetrate  a  foot  deeper  in  a 
clay  soil  than  in  dry  gravel. 

But  by  closer  attention  we  shall  find  that  the  clay  bed  is  uni- 
formly hardest  at  the  top,  and  grows  softer  downward,  being 
softest  just  above  the  ledge.  This  means  that  the  rain  falling  on 
the  hill  above,  filtering  down  through  the  gravel  and  clay  strata 
till  it  reaches  the  rock,  is  there  arrested  and  compelled  to  descend 
along  its  surface,  working  its  way  between  the  stone  and  the  over- 
lying clay,  which  it  reduces  to  a  mud  so  thin,  after 
Sloping  Rocks  Pr°tracted  wet  weather,  that  the  superincumbent 
material  will  slide  along  the  top  of  the  ledge  thus 
lubricated,  if  any  way  is  open  for  it  to  escape.  The  indications 
are  that  the  ledge  extends  along  the  whole  western  line  of  the 
building,  and  by  excavating  the  church  cellar  a  space  will  be  open 

into  which  the  clay,  pressed 
upon  by  the  weight  of  the 
walls  which  come  over 
that  portion  of  the  found- 
ation, will  be  able  to  force 
its  way,  the  cellar  floor 
rising  and  the  wall  set- 
tling, as  the  soft  mud  beneath  is  squeezed  out  under  the  load. 
(Fig.  27.)  This  is  no  imaginary  danger,  but  is  the  certain  con- 
sequence of  the  operations  proposed.  How  can  the  programme 
be  changed  to  meet  the  difficulty  ? 

It  might  be  possible  to  cut  an  intercepting  trench  in  the  ledge, 
similar  to  that  by  which  we  propose  to  cut  off  the  water  descend- 
ing on  the  surface  of  the  clay ;  but  this  would  be  expensive,  and 
there  might  be  seams  of  loose  rock,  like  that  found  under  the 
tower,  through  which  the  streams  would  run  in  the  interior  oC 
the  ledge,  and  coming  again  to  its  surface  below  the  trench,  would 
render  this  useless. 

Might  not  the  foundation  be  carried  through  the  clay  to  the 
rock  itself? 

This  would  be  effectual  in  preventing  settlement,  but  from  the 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  2g 

inclination  of  the  surface  of  the  ledge  exposed  under  the  tower  at 
the  north-west  corner,  we  can  roughly  estimate  that  the  rock  under 
the  north-west  angle  would  be  at  least  ten  feet  below  the  cellar 
bottom,  and  to  carry  the  foundation  to  this  depth  would  add  ma- 
terially to  the  cost  of  the  building.  Besides,  it  would  be  hardly 
wise  to  dam  up  the  descending  water  by  a  continuous  wall,  which 
would  be  in  danger  of  being  gradually  undermined  by  the  flow. 
Rather  let  us  bring  up  piers  from  the  rock,  with  arches  below  the 
cellar  floor  level,  and  the  wall  can  then  rest  on  these  arches  with- 
out danger  of  settlement,  while  the  water  will  find  its  way  between 
them  and  continue  its  course,  far  enough  below  the  cellar  floor  to 
do  no  harm.  For  these  piers  we  will  use  concrete,  which  will 
be  much  cheaper  than  brick  or  stone  masonry,  and  will  resist 
better  the  undermining  action  of  the  subterranean  water. 

A  short  deliberation  is  needed  to  convince  us  that  this  is  the 
best  mode  of  overcoming  the  difficulty,  and  the  arches  are  marked 
out  on  the  foundation  plan,  through  the  whole  extent  of  the  west 
front,  leaving  the  largest  opening  in  the  middle  of  the  wall,  under 
the  great  west  window.  Whether  similar  arches  shall  be  con- 
tinued under  the  north  and  south  walls  is  next  to  be  considered ; 
but  these  are  so  much  lighter  than  the  west  gable  wall  that  their 
effect  on  the  clay  bed  would  be  far  less ;  moreover,  this  bed  is  here 
at  a  much  greater  distance  from  the  surface,  and,  most  important 
of  all,  the  effect  of  a  vertical  pressure  would  be  to  press  it  outward, 
instead  of  inward  toward  the  excavation,  so  that  the  weight  and 
inertia  of  the  whole  depth  of  gravel  above  it  will  operate  to  keep 
it  in  place.  There  is  some  danger  of  unequal  settlement  at  the 
junction  of  these  walls,  which  stand  on  slightly  compressible 
gravel,  with  the  west  wall,  which  by  its  piers  extends  to  the  in- 
compressible rock ;  so  we  will  enlarge  the  footings  of  these  walls 
near  the  junction,  thereby  spreading  the  weight  over  a  large  sur- 
face, and  reducing  the  load  on  each  square  foot  of  gravel  so  far 
that  it  will  be  borne  without  any  yielding.  An  additional  six 
inches  on  each  side,  obtained  by  adding  one  course  of  footings, 
will  suffice,  if  the  stones  are  reasonably  flat,  and  making  a  memo- 
randum of  this  we  proceed  to  consider  the  foundation  of  the  tower. 

Here  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  support,  the  rock  being  every- 
where above  or  near  the  level  of  the  footings.  The  point  requir- 


30  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

ing  most  attention  is  the  spring  of  water  flowing  from  the  seam  of 
loose  rock.  There  is  only  one  thing  to  be  thought  of ;  that  is,  to 
collect  this  water  in  a  covered  receptacle  which  cannot  overflow, 
and  convey  it  by  a  tight  conduit  to  a  safe  outfall 
In  Rock™11  bey°nd  the  walls  of  the  building.  This  will  be  some- 
what costly,  and  the  builder,  and  perhaps  the  church 
committee,  desirous  of  avoiding  needless  expense,  will  quote  the 
example  of  other  structures  in  the  neighborhood  which  have  un- 
covered springs  in  the  cellar,  and  where  they  are  allowed  to  flow 
away  by  an  open  channel,  but  the  architect  or  superintendent 
should  not  allow  himself  to  be  persuaded  by  these  arguments.  He 

will  find,  if  he  cares  to  inquire,  that  in  every  one  of 
Wet  Cellars     ,,      ,         '  .         ,  ^        '  „          /      M. 

the  buildings  mentioned  the  cellar  walls  and  ceilings 

are  dripping  with  moisture,  the  first  story  beams  are  blackening 
with  incipient  decay,  the  structures  themselves  are  chilly  and 
difficult  to  warm  in  winter,  and  a  penetrating  smell  hangs  about 
them  in  summer,  especially  after  rains. 

These  are  the  houses  where  the  young  people  die  of  consump- 
tion, one  after  the  other;  or  the  churches  that  one  enters  with  a 
sudden  depression  of  spirits,  and  leaves  with  a  headache  or  a  cold. 
Let  the  architect  claim  the  authority  due  to  superior  knowledge, 
and  refuse  to  sanction  anything  short  of  absolute  security  against 
water  within  the  cellar  walls. 

Fortunately,  there  is  but  one  spring,  although  that  is  a  copious 
one,  flowing  some  fifty  gallons  per  hour.  We  will  therefore 
excavate,  by  pick  and  by  blasting,  a  rough  well  on  the  line  of  the 
seam,  just  outside  the  cellar  wall,  and  carried  to  a  depth  of  at  least 
2^2  feet  below  the  cellar  floor.  If  there  had  been  several  water- 
bearing seams,  we  should  have  been  compelled,  instead  of  excavat- 
ing the  well  outside  the  wall,  to  make  it  beneath  the  wall  itself, 
by  cutting  the  trenches  two  feet  or  more  below  the  cellar  floor, 
and  putting  in  the  first  foundation  stones  dry,  without  mortar,  so 
that  the  water  could  collect  in  the  vacant  spaces.  This  would 
keep  the  moisture  from  invading  the  cellar,  but  the  wall  might  be 
damp  from  the  water  standing  beneath  it,  so  that  a  well  entirely 
outside  of  the  wall  is  preferable.  We  will,  however,  to  provide 
for  the  possibility  of  water  coming  in  wet  weather  through  seams 
now  dry,  deepen  the  trenches  about  a  foot,  and  lay  the  first  course 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  3! 

of  stones  dry,  bringing  this  trench  into  communication  with  the 
well,  so  that  water  entering  under  any  part  of  the  wall  will  find 
its  way  to  the  well.  A  channel  is  then  to  be  made,  and  a  tight 
pipe  laid  with  cemented  joints  below  the  cellar  floor  from  the  well, 
across  the  tower  and  under  the  opposite  wall  to  the  outside  of  the 
building,  until  the  gravel  is  reached,  where  the  pipe  may  end  in  a 
pit  filled  with  loose  stones. 

Having  plainly  indicated  the  arches,  piers,  drains  and  well,  the 
question  is  to  be  settled, — Who  shall  pay  for  all  this  extra  work  ? 

The  principle  to  be  kept  in  view  in  the  decision  is  that,  unless 
some  special  agreement  has  been  made,  the  builder  cannot  be 
obliged  to  pay  the  cost  of  extra  foundation,  concrete,  or  other 
works  rendered  necessary  by  peculiarities  of  the  ground  which 
could  not  have  been  reasonably  expected  or  foreseen  when  the 
contract  was  signed :  he  is,  however,  presumed  to  have  examined 
the  ground  where  the  proposed  building  was  to  stand,  and  to  have 
included  in  his  contract  price  the  risk  of  common  defects,  such  as 
clay  beds  in  gravel,  rock  in  a  spot  where  the  ledge  appears  on  the 
surface  near  by,  or  of  springs  in  any  soil. 

Of  course  the  best  way  would  have  been  to  bore  at  different 
points  around  the  building,  to  find  out  the  depth  and  nature  of  the 
soil,  and  by  the  light  of  these  tests  to  draw  the  foundation  plans 
and  specify  the  various  works,  but  this  is  rarely  done  in  ordinary 
buildings,  and  the  object  of  this  treatise  is  as  much  to  come  to 
the  rescue  in  the  common  cases  of  forget  fulness,  omission,  or  un- 
foreseen difficulty,  as  to  point  out  the  course  which  would  be 
absolutely  the  best  for  all  buildings. 

In  the  present  case,  it  is  decided  that,  the  clay  seam  being  a 
common  occurrence  in  gravelly  soils,  the  contractor  shall  bear  the 
expense  of  the  trench  and  drain  for  cutting  off  the  water  which 
would  flow  over  its  surface  toward  the  building ;  and  Apportion- 
shall  also  pay  for  the  drain  to  carry  off  the  spring-  mentof 
water  from  under  the  tower ;  but  that  the  cost  of  car-  Cost 
rying  down  the  foundations  of  the  west  wall  beyond  the  point 
shown  on  the  drawings,  the  extra  width  of  footings  under  the 
north  wall,  and  the  necessary  blasting  under  the  tower,  shall  fall 
on  the  church,  for  the  reason  that  the  ledge  did  not  appear  above 
ground  anywhere  near  the  site  of  the  building,  and  therefore  its 


32  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

existence  so  near  the  surface  as  to  interfere  with  the  foundations 
would  not  reasonably  be  inferred  with  sufficient  certainty  to  form 
an  element  in  the  contract  price ;  the  same  rule  applying  also  to  the 
clay  bed  resting  on  the  rock. 

The  new  work  should  be  clearly  described  in  a  supplementary 
specification,  giving  the  proportion  of  cement,  sand,  and  pebbles 
in  the  concrete,  mentioning  the  large  flat  stones  which  should 
form  the  upper  part  of  the  piers,  and  from  which  the  arches  will 
spring ;  requiring  that  the  arches  shall  be  built  on  centres,  of  good, 
hard  brick,  in  mortar  made  with  one  part  sand  to  one  of  cement, 
in  four  row-locks  for  the  small  arches,  and  five  in  the  large  one ; 
with  any  other  particulars  which  may  make  the  meaning  more 
clear.  The  drawings  should  be  rectified  by  notes  and  diagrams 
in  the  margin,  a  record  of  all  the  facts,  with  copies  of  all  instruc- 
tions and  orders,  kept  by  the  superintendent,  and  a  price  agreed 
upon,  setting  off  against  the  cost  of  blasting  under  the  tower  the 
amount  of  earth  excavation  saved,  and  the  value  of  the  rough 
stone  obtained.  An  additional  agreement,  embodying  the  sup- 
plementary specification  and  the  extra  price  agreed  upon,  is  drawn 
up,  signed  by  both  parties,  and  attached  to  the  original  contract, 
and  the  work  is  ready  to  proceed. 

All  this  sounds  long,  but  it  is  time  well  spent,  for  a  few  hours 
more  in  arranging  the  preliminaries  will  save  days  as  well  as 
dollars  to  both  parties  in  the  final  settlement.  A  glance  at  the 
rough  stone  delivered,  with  an  admonition  to  the  builder  to  get 
the  footing-stones  as  flat  as  possible,  and  the  summary  sending  off 
the  ground  of  a  lot  of  staging  lumber  which  has  just  arrived, 
containing  a  number  of  knotty  and  shaky  poles,  calling  the  build- 
er's attention  at  the  same  time  to  their  rejection,  may  terminate 
our  duties  for  the  day. 

THE  THIRD  AND  FOURTH  VISITS 

Very  soon  after  these  affairs  have  been  agreed  upon  it  will  be 
necessary  to  make  another  visit  to  the  building,  to  see  that  the 
execution  is  rightly  begun. 

We  find  the  excavation  finished,  the  blasting  done  under  the 
tower,  the  collecting  well  and  pipe  completed,  and  the  foundation- 
wall  under  that  part  already  some  five  feet  high.  There  is  no 
other  stonework  started,  and  thinking  it  a  little  strange  that  this, 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


33 


the  most  difficult  part  of  the  work,  should  have  been  begun  first, 
we  examine  the  wall  minutely.  The  inside  face  looks  all  right, 
the  stones  being  perhaps  a  little  small;  but  that  may  be  the  way 
the  stone  runs.  Outside,  the  gravel  has  been  rilled  in  nearly  to 
the  top  of  the  stone-work.  We  borrow  a  crowbar  and  force  it 
into  the  gravel  outside  the  wall  in  several  places.  Except  a  soft- 
ness of  the  material,  which  shows  that  it  has  not  been  properly 
rammed,  or  "puddled"  by  wetting  it  thoroughly,  so  as  to  pack  it 
closely  into  its  place,  we  observe  nothing  out  of  the  way  until  we 
approach  the  corner,  where  for  some  feet  the  bar,  instead  of 
sinking  its  full  length,  close  to  the  outside  of  the  wall,  strikes 
against  the  solid  rock  not  far  down.  We  call  the  foreman  and 
ask  him  if  the  foundation- 
wall  stands  entirely  clear  of 
the  ledge.  He  hesitates,  and 
finally  replies  that  the  ledge, 
after  being  cut  away  through 
part  of  the  thickness  of  the 
wall,  showed  such  a  "nice 
flat  top"  that  it  seemed  a  pity 
to  excavate  it  any  farther, 

and  he  had  therefore  built  up 

,  .  Fig.  28 

a  thin  wall  against  it  as  high 

as  the  top,  and  then  built  out  over  the  rock  to  make  the  full  thick- 
ness of  the  wall  as  shown  on  the  plans.  He  adds,  with  great 
apparent  confidence,  that  "nothing  can  be  better  for  part  of  the 
wall  than  the  solid  rock." 

This  explanation  is  specious,  but  in  practice  is  dangerously 
misleading.  In  a  wall  so  built,  the  water  will  find  its  way  either 
through  the  imperceptible  seams  of  the  ledge  or  over  its  top  into 
the  body  of  the  masonry,  keeping  it  constantly  damp.  Moreover, 
there  is  a  serious  risk  that  under  the  heavy  weight  of  the  tower, 
the  thin  lining  wall  built  up  against  the  ledge,  but  in  no  way 
bonded  to  it,  would  separate  from  it  and  fall  away,  leaving  the 
superincumbent  masonry  most  insecurely  supported.  (Fig.  28.) 

There  is,  besides,  the  certainty  that  the  foundation- wall,  built 
partly  on  unyielding  rock,  and  partly  of  small  stones  laid  in  com- 
pressible mortar,  will  settle  unequally,  and  crack,  perhaps  dislocat- 

3 


24  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

ing  the  masonry  above,  and  at  least  opening  an  inlet  for  moisture. 
The  work  must  therefore  be  immediately  taken  down  to  the  very 
foundation,  and  the  ledge  cut  away  so  as  to  leave  ample  space  for 
the  whole  thickness  of  the  cellar  wall  down  to  the  footings,  with 
seven  or  eight  inches  additional  room  outside  the  masonry  to 
enable  it  to  be  properly  pointed,  and  for  packing  in  behind  it  a 
screen  of  gravel,  which  will  intercept  and  carry  safely  down  to  the 
drains  whatever  water  may  ooze  through  the  veins  of  the  rock. 
The  workmen  will  probably  profess  never  to  have  heard  of  a 
Outside  Face  foundation  in  which  the  bank  was  not  intentionally 
of  Foundation-  cut  just  to  coincide  with  the  outside  line  of  the  wall, 
Walls  go  t^t  this  could  be  built  up  directly  against  it, 

thereby  saving  them  all  the  trouble  of  selecting  stones  for  this 
side,  so  as  to  have  it  smooth ;  plumbing  it,  to  get  it  vertical ;  and 
pointing  it,  so  as  to  have  it  impervious.  It  is  true  that  this  is  the 
common  method  of  cheap  builders,  but  it  is 
not,  and  should  not  be,  countenanced  in  work 
of  any  importance,  even  in  dwelling-houses, 
except  of  the  lightest  and  cheapest  kind. 

A  wall  built  in  this  way  (Fig.  29)  is  neither 
safe  nor  satisfactory.  The  joints  at  the  back, 
being  concealed,  are  usually  devoid  of  mortar, 
or  if  any  is  put  in,  it  falls  out  again,  so  that  a 
gradual  compression  of  the  outer  portion  is 
\t'S*'''r^7~~i  liable  to  take  place,  as  the  weight  of  the  super- 

"  •i-~  •^"^-<t  *•»•'«  ~  structure  increases,  bulging  the  inner  face  of 
the  wall  toward  the  cellar;  and  the  unfilled 
cavities  next  the  bank  collect  the  water  which  trickles  down  by 
them,  and  conduct  it  into  the  heart  of  the  masonry,  while  the  pro- 
jecting points  of  the  larger  stones  imbed  themselves  in  the  earth, 
so  that  when  this  freezes  and  expands,  the  wall  is  often  lifted  as  if 
by  a  number  of  short  levers,  dislocating  the  joints  and  making 
channels  for  moisture  through  them.  It  is  actually  much  more 
important  to  have  the  outside  of  a  cellar  wall  smooth  than  the 
inside.  If  the  stones  are  selected  so  as  to  show  a  good  face  on  the 
outer  surface,  the  joints  well  filled  with  cement  mortar,  and  point- 
ed with  due  care  as  the  work  proceeds,  holding  the  trowel  used  for 
pointing  obliquely,  so  as  to  "weather"  the  joint,  as  the  workmen 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


35 


say  (Fig.  30),  any  moisture  which  runs  out  from  the  bank,  or 
descends  from  above,  and  flows  down  over  the  outer  face  of  the 
wall,  will,  when  it  meets  a  joint,  drip  off,  falling  on  the  inclined  sur- 
face of  cement,  by  which  it  will  be  conducted  safely  over  the  edge  of 
the  next  stone,  to  run  down  and  drip  off  again,  until  it  reaches  the 
bottom,  where  it  passes  off  in  the  drain,  without  having  been  able 
anywhere  to  penetrate  into  the  masonry.  This  essential  point  in 
construction  is  one  of  the  hardest  to  enforce.  It  is  so  habitual 
with  ordinary  workmen  to  neglect  the  portions  which  will  be 
concealed,  and  expend  their  skill  on 
the  visible  inner  surface,  that  some 
explanations  given  to  individual  men 
will  be  necessary,  especially  of  the 
proper  method  of  pointing,  besides  a 
good  deal  of  watching,  to  see  that 
the  directions  are  followed. 

Having  given  the  requisite  orders 
for  taking  down  the  objectionable 
masonry,  excavating  the  ledge  prop- 
erly, and  rebuilding  in  the  manner 
described,  we  will  pursue  our  tour 
around  the  building.  Close  by  we 
come  to  the  pits  prepared  for  the  con- 


Fig.  30 


crete  piers  which  are  to  extend  the  foundation  of  the  west  wall 
down  to  the  rock.  The  sides  of  the  deepest  holes  are  sustained  by 
a  shoring  of  planks  and  beams,  and  the  contractor  is  awaiting 
orders  to  put  in  the  concrete.  We  examine  the  pits  and  make 
sure  that  the  ledge  is  exposed  at  the  bottom,  and  clear  of  clay, 
which  would  prevent  the  concrete  from  attaching  itself  to  the  rock. 
The  deepest  excavation,  we  find,  has  struck  a  spring,  which  runs 
copiously  over  the  surface  of  the  ledge  at  the  bottom,  and  the 
contractor  says,  with  reason,  that  the  cement  will  be  washed  out  of 
his  concrete  as  fast  as  he  puts  it  in.  There  is  a  remedy  for  that ; 
but  before  beginning  the  concreting  we  must  test  the  quality  of 
the  materials.  Meanwhile,  we  send  a  boy  to  fetch  a  dozen  yards 
of  oiled  cotton  cloth. 

In  accordance  with  our  previous  directions,  the  contractor  has 
screened  the  gravel  which  he  proposes  to  use,  and  the  finer  part  is 


36  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

heaped  up  on  one  side  of  a  large  plank  mortar-bed,  while  the 
coarser  pebbles  are  piled  on  the  other.     The  fine  gravel,  or  rather 
sand,  when  rubbed  in  the  hand  gives  a  dry,  crackling  sound,  and 
is  prickly  to  the  skin.     We  wet  some  of  it,  and  grasp 
(Making6        a  Quantity.     On  opening  the  hand  it  will  not  retain 
its  shape,  but  falls  down  loosely,  and  does  not  soil  the 
skin.     It  is  therefore  sharp  and  clean,  suitable  to  be  used  for 
mortar  or  concrete  without  washing.     If  it  should  happen  that 
the  sand  is  very  fine,  it  may  still  be  used,  if  sharp  and  clean,  but 
the  proportion  of  fine  sand  by  measure  to  a  given  quan- 
tity of  cement  should  be  less  than  that  of  coarse,  and  the 
coarser  kinds  are  much  to  be  preferred.     The  rounded  pebbles 
screened  out  of  the  gravel  are  free  from  earth  or  clay,  but  some 
dust  clings  to  them,  which  would  prevent  the  perfect  adherence  of 
the  cement  to  their  surface,  and  we  direct  them  to  be  thoroughly 
washed  by  throwing  buckets  of  water  over  them. 

Some  officious  individual  has  added  to  the  heap  a  quantity  of 
the  angular  fragments  of  disintegrated  rock  from  the  tower  found- 
ation, but  these,  although  excellent  in  shape,  we  find  to  be  some- 
what coated  with  the  clay  which  has  been  washed  inttxthe  rock 
seams,  and  therefore  unfit  for  concrete  unless  washed  clean.  This 
would  be  a  long  process,  since  any  admixture  of  clay  clings  very 
persistently  to  sand  or  stone,  and  is  very  injurious  unless  entirely 
removed,  so,  as  we  have  an  ample  supply  of  cleaner  material  at 
hand,  we  order  all  the  clayey  fragments  to  be  taken  away. 

The  cement  is  next  to  be  passed  upon.  Of  this  we  find  ready 
for  us  a  large  number  of  barrels,  bearing  a  great  variety  of  brands, 
and  gathered  from  the  stocks  of  all  the  local  dealers  within  reach. 
Among  them  are  several  casks  of  Portland  cement,  English,  Ger- 
man and  American,  and  a  much  larger  number  of  barrels  of 
Rosendale  cement,  from  the  Hoffman,  F.  O.  Norton,  Newark  and 
other  works.  The  mason  is  in  a  hurry  to  begin,  so  we  tell  him  to 
use  at  once  any  of  the  F.  O.  Norton,  Newark,  or  Hoffman  cement, 
or  any  Portland  cement  that  has  not  been  damaged.  The  first 
cask  of  these  that  is  opened  contains  a  crust  of  hardened  cement 
three  or  four  inches  thick,  but  the  enclosed  portion  remains  in  its 
normal  state  of  fine  powder.  We  order  the  crust  to  be  rejected, 
but  allow  the  finer  portions  to  be  used.  The  other  barrels  seem 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  37 

uninjured.  Meanwhile,  casting  an  eye  now  and  then  on  the 
mortar  mixers  to  see  that  they  put  conscientiously  one  shovelful 
of  cement  to  two  of  sand,  and  thoroughly  mix  the  dry  sand  and 
cement  before  adding  water,  we  proceed  to  test  roughly  all  the 
brands  of  cement  before  us  with  which  we  are  not  familiar. 

Masons  have  various  ways  by  which  they  profess  to  form  an 
opinion  of  the  goodness  of  cement.  Some  dip  their  hands  or 
arms  into  the  barrel,  and  if  the  powder  feels  warm  they  pronounce 
it  good ;  others  taste  it,  and  if  it  bites  the  tongue  they  call  it  suit- 
able for  use,  the  strength  of  the  cement  being 
Cement  supposed  to  be  proportional  to  the  intensity  of  the 
bite ;  and  there  is  another  common  belief  that  the  dark 
colored  brands  of  cement  are  stronger  than  the  light.  It  is 
needless  to  say  that  all  these  tests  are  simply  worthless;  in  fact, 
they  are  principally  employed  to  impose  upon  modest  young  archi- 
tects, who  can  sometimes  be  deceived  by  such  mysterious  per- 
formances, the  result  of  which  is  sure  to  be  in  accordance  with 
the  interest  of  the  party  applying  the  tests. 

Let  us  cast  aside  these  divinations,  and  taking  a  handful  of 
cement  from  an  average  barrel  of  each  of  the  brands,  mix  it  with 
water  into  a  cake,  put  it  in  the  sun,  or  in  any  dry  place,  for  half 
an  hour  or  more,  till  it  acquires  such  a  consistency  as  to  be  barely 
indented  by  the  pressure  of  the  end  of  a  match  or  a  stick  of  equal 
size,  cut  square,  and  weighted  by  resting  a  brick  upon  it.  Place 
the  cakes  in  some  regular  order,  so  that  the  different  varieties  of 
cement  of  which  they  are  made  can  be  distinguished,  and  as  fast 
as  they  reach  the  requisite  hardness,  put  them  into  a  tub  of  water, 
till  all  are  immersed.  Note  the  time  required  for  each  one  to 
reach  its  first  "set"  in  the  air.  Finally,  make  a  second  series  of 
cakes,  and  leave  them  exposed  to  the  air,  without  immersion. 

By  this  time  a  batch  of  concrete  is  mixed ;  the  sand  and  cement 
have  been  thoroughly  mingled  until  no  lumps  of  cement  or  sandy 
streaks  can  be  discovered  in  the  heap,  water  is  then  added,  not  in 
too  great  quantity,  but  enough  to  give  a  pudding-like  consistency 
to  the  mass,  and  the  whole  is  well  stirred  and  shovelled  over 
again ;  then  the  stones,  which  have  been  well  wet  before  putting 
them  into  the  mortar,  are  added,  and  all  mixed  quickly,  but 
thoroughly.  If  well  mixed,  the  bulk  of  pebbles  may  be  double 


~g  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

that  of  the  mortar.  The  object  of  wetting  the  stones  before 
adding  them  is  to  wash  off  the  light  dust  which  very  rapidly 
settles  on  them,  and  prevents  the  adherence  of  the  cement.  The 
moisture  of  the  mortar  would  wash  the  stones  clean  by  long 
stirring,  but  time  is  of  importance,  and  it  is  best  and  easiest  to 
dash  on  a  few  buckets  of  water  first. 

We  begin  with  the  deepest  pier  of  concrete, — the  one  which 
has  to  be  laid  in  a  stream  of  running  water.  Taking  the  oiled 
cotton,  which  has  by  this  time  been  brought,  we  fashion  it  into  a 
large,  rude  bag,  nearly  watertight,  which  is  taken  down  into  the 
hole  and  filled  with  concrete.  The  water  rises  around  the  edge, 
but  not  enough  to  overflow  the  mass,  and  after  packing  the 
concrete  solidly  down  into  its  place  by  means  of  a  wooden  ram- 
mer, we  leave  this,  and  proceed  to  put  a  layer  into  each  of  the 
other  excavations,  throwing  it  down  from  the  top,  so  as  to 
compact  the  mass  by  the  momentum  of  the  fall,  as  it  is  not  easy 
to  reach  it  with  wooden  rammers.  After  dividing  the  material 
already  mixed  among  all  the  piers,  the  concreting  should  be 
stopped  for  the  day,  and  the  men  put  on  other  work,  as  we  are 
more  likely  to  obtain  a  compact  mass  by  putting  it  into  the  pits 
in  twelve-inch  layers  on  successive  days  than  by  filling  in  the 
whole  body  at  once.  The  holes  should  be  covered  with  boards, 
to  prevent  rain  from  washing  in  sand  on  top  of  the  layers  already 
deposited. 

The  next  day,  after  our  regular  preliminary  tour,  first  outside 
and  then  inside  the  building,  we  examine  the  samples  of  cement 
which  we  made  up  the  day  before,  and  laid  aside.  The  speci- 
men of  a  certain  brand  left  twenty-four  hours  in  the  air  is  found 
to  be  quite  hard,  and  breaking  the  cake  with  a  pulling  strain,  much 
as  if  it  were  a  stick  of  candy,  we  find  it  to  possess  a  very  sensible 
tensile  strength,  and  the  two  halves  separate  with  a  clean  fracture 
instead  of  crumbling.  The  cake  of  the  same  brand  left  in  water 
retains  its  shape,  and  has  increased  considerably  in  firmness. 
The  cement  of  this  brand  may  therefore  be  pronounced  good. 

A  second  sample  shows  similar  qualities,  both  in  water  and 
air,  in  at  least  an  equal  degree,  and  all  the  barrels  of  this  brand 
which,  on  being  opened,  show  no  signs  of  caking,  are  accepted. 
Of  a  third  brand,  the  sample  in  air  is  quite  hard,  harder  than 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  39 

either  of  the  two  preceding,  and  a  slight  bluish  efflorescence,  like 
mould,  has  already  begun  to  appear  on  its  surface,  but  the  speci- 
men left  under  water  has  crumbled  into  a  soft  heap. 

Of  the  samples  of  a  fourth  brand,  the  portion  left  in  the  air 
retains  its  shape,  but  has  not  acquired  much  consistency,  and 
crushes  in  the  ringers  like  clay.  The  sample  in  water  is  nothing 
but  mud. 

It  does  not  necessarily  follow,  because  this  last  variety  sets 
slowly,  that  it  is  essentially  bad,  but  it  will  be  unsafe  to  use  in 
our  concrete,  and  inconvenient  in  the  masonry,  so  that  unless  a 
second  sample  should  show  much  better  qualities,  we  will  discard 
all  the  barrels  of  that  brand. 

The  third  cement,  which  sets  quickly  and  hard  in  air,  but 
under  water  breaks  up  and  crumbles,  should  be  rejected  for  the 
concrete,  but  may  be  used  for  the  masonry.  If  the  rapidity  of  its 
setting  should  interfere  with  its  convenient  use,  as  will  very  likely 
be  the  case,  especially  in  hot  weather,  it  should  be  mixed  with  a 
small  portion  of  lime. 

If  none  but  this  cement  should  be  obtainable,  or  other  brands 
having  similar  characteristics,  let  the  superintendent  try  whether 
a  sample  of  it  mixed  with  half  its  bulk  of  slaked  lime  and  made 
into  a  ball  will  set  hard  under  water ;  if  so,  it  may  be  safely  used  in 
that  way,  even  for  concrete. 

Some  of  the  quickest-setting  Rosendale  cements,  when  im- 
mersed in  water  without  having  previously  acquired  a  certain 
degree  of  hardness  in  the  air,  will  set  rapidly,  and  immediately 
crumble  again,  and  never  acquire  any  subsequent  consistency. 
With  such  it  is  often  found  that  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity 
of  lime  will  confer  upon  it  the  qualities  of  the  better  cements, 
causing  it  to  set  perfectly  under  water,  and  improving  it  for  use  in 
air  by  retarding  the  setting  slightly.  With  the  very  slow-setting 
cements  little  can  be  done  unless  there  is  time  to  wait  for  them. 
They  may  do  for  adding  to  lime  mortar  in  stone-work  above 
ground,  where  it  is  desirable  to  harden  the  mortar,  but  for  found- 
ations, on  which  the  weight  is  to  be  rapidly  added,  or  in  work 
under  water,  it  is  best  to  avoid  the  use  of  any  cement  whose  setting 
is  found  to  be  uncertain  or  long  delayed. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  say  that  these  tests  are  by  no  means  such 


40  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

as  would  be  used  for  engineering  work  of  importance,  but  they 
will  do  well  enough  for  rough  determinations,  and  an  ample  mar- 
gin of  strength  is,  or  should  be,  always  left  in  the  smaller  opera- 
tions of  construction.  More  accurate  methods  of  judging  will  be 
described  in  treating  of  city  buildings. 

In  the  course  of  our  preliminary  tour  around  the  works  we 
noticed  with  surprise  that  one  of  the  concrete  piers  was  already 
finished,  and  the  top  nicely  smoothed  over,  and  having  completed 
the  tests  of  the  cement,  we  return  to  inquire  into  the  matter,  tak- 
ing the  foreman  with  us.  We  examine  the  ground  closely,  and 
notice  some  stray  pebbles  dropped  around  the  edge  of  the  hole, 
and  some  such  dialogue  takes  place  as  the  following : — 

Superintendent: — "Mr.  Foreman,  how  did  you  get  this  pier 
done  so  soon  ?" 

Foreman: — "Well,  sir,  we  hurried  a  little  on  this  pier,  because 
we  wanted  it  to  git  set  before  it  rained,  and" — 

Superintendent: — "I  left  word  to  put  in  only  twelve  inches  of 
concrete  at  a  time  in  each  pier." 

Foreman: — "O,  law,  sir,  that  ain't  no  way  to  build  a  pier. 
There  ain't  no  one  can  tell  me  nothin'  about  concrete.  That's  as 
nice  a  job  of  concrete  as  ever" — 

Superintendent  (remembering  the  scattered  pebbles)  : — "You 
didn't  put  the  stones  in  dry  and  then  grout  them,  did  you?" 

Foreman  (slightly  taken  aback)  : — "Well,  sir,  perhaps, — yes, 
we  did ;  you  see,  that  is  the  best  way  to  do  where  you  have  such 
coarse  sand,  and  then" — 

Superintendent: — "Get  some  one  here  and  take  that  all  out. 
It  is  impossible  to  tell  now  how  much  cement  there  is  in  it,  but  it 
has  not  begun  to  set,  so  if  you  will  take  it  back  to  the  pen  and  add 
a  shovelful  of  cement  to  every  two  shovelfuls  of  this,  and  mix  it 
well,  I  will  let  it  pass  to  put  into  all  the  piers  twelve  inches  thick." 

Foreman  (deferentially)  : — "Yes,  sir,  anything  you  say,  sir." 

Pursuing  our  way  after  this  little  episode  we  come  to  a  squad 
of  men  laying  footing-stones  for  the  clerestory  wall  on  the  gravelly 
Setting  bottom.  These  must  be  carefully  looked  after,  for 
Footing-  the  weight  of  the  clerestory  wall  being  concentrated 
on  the  piers  of  the  arcade  will  try  the  strength  of  the 
foundation  very  seriously.  The  drawings  show  a  continuous 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  4I 

foundation-wall,  but  no  inverted  arches,  it  being  impossible  to  get 
the  necessary  abutment  for  these  without  considerable  additional 
expense,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  that  the  masonry  of  the 
foundation  should  be  well  bonded  together  longitudinally,  so  as 
to  receive  the  pressure  as  a  solid  mass;  otherwise  the  settlement 
will  be  greater  under  the  piers,  and  the  work  will  be  dangerously 
dislocated. 

Most  of  the  footing-stones  on  the  ground  are  good  flat  pieces, 
but  here  and  there  are  some  misshapen  lumps,  and  one  of  these, 
just  as  we  come  up,  is  suspended  to  the  derrick  boom,  ready  to 
lower  into  its  place.  The  men  have  tried  faithfully  to  hollow  out 
a  basin  in  the  gravelly  bottom  of  the  trench  to  fit  the  irregularities 
of  the  stone,  but  when  this  is  lowered  into  its  place,  it  rocks  un- 
steadily. It  is  raised  again  and  the  bed  remodelled.  This  time 
the  stone  fits  better,  but  is  still  unsteady.  The  men  are  discussing 
whether  to  let  it  go  as  it  is,  or  try  again,  when  the  superintendent 
comes  up,  and  stepping  upon  the  stone  rocks  it  until  he  is  satisfied 
that  there  are  no  large  cavities  beneath.  Sending  for  buckets  of 
water,  he  directs  fine  gravel  to  be  heaped  around  the 
stone,  picking  out  all  pebbles  and  lumps,  and  the  water 
to  be  then  thrown  on,  pailful  after  pailful,  or,  still 
better,  a  stream  from  a  hose  to  be  directed  upon  the  mass.  The 
water  settles  away  through  the  sand,  searching  out  all  cavities 
into  which  it  can  flow,  and  carrying  particles  with  it  wherever  it 
goes,  which  gradually  compact  themselves  in  the  hollows  under 
the  stone  until  it  can  no  longer  be  moved.  This  puddling  process 
is  continued  a  little  longer,  to  make  sure  that  a  full  and  perfect 
bed  is  formed  under  the  stone,  and  directions  are  given  to  do  the 
same  with  all  the  levellers  which  have  uneven  beds. 

Where  the  bottom  of  the  trench  is  clay  or  rock,  a  thick  layer 
of  cement  mortar  should  be  spread  to  bed  the  footing-stones  in, 
for  the  purpose  of  filling  up  all  cavities  between  the  substratum 
and  the  stone,  but  in  gravelly  soil  the  puddling  with  water  is  often 
much  better  than  the  bed  of  cement,  especially  with  stones  of  very 
irregular  shape.  This  expedient  for  filling  in  cavities  under  and 
around  masonry  is  capable  of  still  more  extended  use.  The  writer 
once  knew  a  case  where  a  church  tower  had  been  nearly  completed 
upon  a  foundation  badly  built  and  with  joints  only  half-filled  with 


42  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

mortar.  The  tower  began  to  settle,  and  the  contractor  for  the 
superstructure,  a  man  distinguished  for  his  boldness  and  ingenuity 
in  emergencies,  sent  for  the  town  fire-engine  and  a  quantity  of  fine 
sand,  and  putting  the  sand  into  the  tower  cellar,  kept  the  engine 
playing  upon  it  for  half  a  day.  The  floods  of  water  found  their 
way  out  through  every  crevice,  and  wherever  the  water  went  the 
sand  followed,  until  all  the  cavities  were  packed  full.  It  was 
heroic  treatment,  certainly,  but  effectual;  the  settlement  ceased, 
and  the  tower  stands  perfect  to  this  day. 

Let  us  look  at  the  stone  delivered  on  the  ground  for  found- 
ation-walls. It  is  of  various  kinds,  some  pieces  being  slaty,  some 
tough,  with  rounded  faces,  like  fragments  of  boulders,  as  they 
probably  are.  Many  blocks  of  the  greenstone  from  the  tower 

excavation  are  to  be  seen,  and  these  should  be  exam- 
Stonedati°n  me<^  with  suspicion,  for  fear  of  almost  invisible  cracks, 

which  will  let  the  water  soak  slowly  through,  besides 
unfitting  the  stone  to  resist  a  strain.  To  test  them,  they  should 
be  struck  with  a  hammer.  If  they  ring  clearly,  they  are  good ;  a 
seam,  even  if  invisible,  will  betray  itself  by  the  dull  sound  which 
follows  the  blow.  The  boulder  stones  are  usually  good,  if  not 
too  much  rounded.  One  side,  at  least,  should  be  quite  flat,  to 
form  the  bed.  Slate  stones  vary  in  different  localities.  In  some 
places  they  are  of  immense  strength  if  placed  flat  in  the  wall,  and 
form  admirable  material;  in  others,  especially  in  eastern  Massa- 
chusetts, the  tendency  to  cleavage  in  the  secondary  planes,  across 
the  laminae,  is  so  decided  that  the  stones,  although  apparently 
sound  and  strong,  will  break  across  after  being  placed  in  the  wall, 
as  soon  as  the  weight  of  the  superstructure  comes  upon  them. 
This  is  a  most  annoying  defect,  as  the  stones  cannot  then  be  taken 
out,  and  the  parts  often  separate  a  quarter  of  an  inch  or  more,  mak- 
ing a  seam  which  it  is  difficult  to  close  by  pointing.  The  only  way, 
when  a  tendency  is  noticed  in  the  stone  to  break  up  into  fragments 
of  regular  crystalline  form,  is  to  avoid  using  it  in  long  flat  pieces, 
for  lintels,  bond-stones  or  templates,  or  in  any  other  position  where 
it  will  be  subjected  to  a  cross  strain.  The  softer  lime  and  sand 
stones,  when  used  for  foundations,  are  much  less  liable  to  such 
defects,  but  being  somewhat  absorbent,  special  pains  must  be  taken 
to  isolate  them  from  the  banks  of  the  excavation  by  a  backing  of 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  43 

sand  or  gravel,  and  to  provide  for  thoroughly  intercepting  and 
draining  off  the  moisture  which  might  come  in  contact  with  them. 
An  inspection  should  now  be  made  of  the  lime,  and  oppor- 
tunity should  be  taken  to  inquire  into  and  criticise  the  methods 
that  the  foreman  proposes  to  employ  in  mixing  the  mor- 
tar for  the  upper  portion  of  the  masonry.  The  barrels 
have,  we  find,  been  piled  on  a  slightly  elevated  spot,  the  ground 
descending  in  all  directions,  so  that  water  may  not  during  heavy 
rains  run  down  against  them.  Boards  have  been  placed  under- 
neath, to  keep  them  from  the  dampness  of  the  ground,  and  a  cov- 
ering of  boards  has  been  laid  on  top,  to  shelter  them  from  storms. 
This  would  not  be  sufficient  protection  in  ordinary  cases,  but  the 
contractor  tells  us  that  he  intends  to  build  up  the  foundations  of 
the  chancel  at  once,  and  lay  the  floor  over  them,  which  will  give 
him  a  dry  place  for  storing  materials,  and  we  acquiesce  in  this 
arrangement.  Two  or  three  of  the  casks  in  the  pile  have  burst 
open,  and  looking  in  we  see  some  of  the  lumps  in  them  crumbled 
down  into  soft  powder,  while  others  are  hard,  but  remain  inert 
when  dipped  in  water.  These  are  damaged  casks,  and  must  be 
rejected  as  worthless,  however  good  the  original  quality  of  the 
lime  may  have  been.  A  large  part  of  the  barrels  are  marked 
"ground  lime,"  and  contain  a  dingy-colored  lime  in  powder.  This, 
if  not  damaged,  will  make  good  mortar,  although  it  slakes  quietly, 
and  if  not  pulverized  will  not  slake  at  all.  The  mortar  of  com- 
mon ground  lime  is  slightly  hydraulic,  and  will  harden  under 
water.  In  general,  the  hydraulic  limes,  which  will  harden  under 
water,  or  in  damp  situations,  without  admixture  of  cement,  slake 
quietly,  and  need  to  be  ground  after  burning,  while  the  fat  limes, 
such  as  are  used  for  plastering,  slake  energetically,  and  are  better 
kept  in  lumps,  so  that  they  may  not  be  slaked  by  the  moisture  of 
the  air,  while  the  mortar  made  from  them  hardens  slowly  in  the 
air,  and  under  water,  or  in  damp  soils,  never,  unless  cement  is 
added  to  the  mixture,  which  is  usually  done  where  they  are  used 
for  masonry.  Two  or  three  other  casks  are  destitute  of  brands, 
and  their  contents  should  be  tested  by  putting  a  few  lumps  from 
each  into  water.  The  lime  from  one  slakes  quickly,  but  only  su- 
perficially, leaving  a  hard  core.  It  is  therefore  underburnt,  and 
must  be  rejected  and  sent  off  the  ground.  The  lumps  of  core,  if 


44  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

allowed  to  get  into  the  mortar,  would  be  likely  to  swell  after- 
wards, and  crack  the  masonry,  or  throw  off  the  pointing.  An- 
other barrel  contains  overburnt  lime,  which  remains  inactive  for 
a  long  time  in  the  water,  even  when  powdered,  at  last  slaking 
slowly.  This  must  also  be  discarded ;  it  is  less  valuable  than  so 
much  sand. 

The  other  barrels  are  stencilled  "Rockland,"  "Rockport,"  "Ca- 
naan/' "Glens  Falls,"  "Thomaston,"  or  other  well-known  brands, 
and  if  not  damaged  by  water  or  by  gradual  air-slaking,  are  prob- 
ably all  good  enough  for  making  stone  mortar  with  an  admixture 
of  cement. 

In  mixing  the  mortar  the  foreman  should  be  persuaded,  if 
possible,  to  put  on  all  the  water  for  a  batch  of  lime  at  once,  instead 
of  by  successive  buckets,  with  intervals  of  stirring  be- 
tween, thereby  chilling  the  lime  as  fast  as  it  begins  to 
heat.  Even  filling  the  pen  with  a  hose  is  too  long  a  process  for 
securing  the  best  results ;  with  very  active  lime  the  most  success- 
ful mode  is  to  pour  it  in  a  mass  from  a  large  cask.  The  proper 
quantity  of  water  is  one  and  a  half  barrel  to  each  barrel  of  aver- 
age lump  lime,  and  this  should  be  measured  as  accurately  as  pos- 
sible. If  too  much  is  added,  the  mortar  will  be  thin ;  if  too  little, 
it  will  be  thick  and  become  difficult  to  work  as  the  slaking  pro- 
ceeds, so  that  the  mixer  will  add  more  water  to  the  mass,  thereby 
chilling  it  and  putting  a  stop  to  the  slaking  process,  and  a  granu- 
lar, lumpy  mortar  will  be  the  result. 

Much  of  the  labor  of  stirring  would  be  saved,  and  the  quality 
of  the  mortar  improved,  by  covering  the  pen,  as  soon  as  the  lime 
lumps  have  been  evenly  spread  over  the  bottom  and  the  requisite 
proportion  of  water  added,  with  a  canvas  or  tarpaulin,  and  leav- 
ing it  to  itself  for  half  an  hour  or  so,  during  which  time  the  con- 
fined steam  and  heat,  aiding  the  action  of  the  water,  will  reduce 
the  whole  to  a  smooth,  uniform  paste. 

On  no  account  should  the  lime  be  slaked  on  the  bare 
ground,  or  in  a  hollow  made  by  an  embankment  of  sand.  Such 
practices,  though  they  still  linger  in  country  districts,  have  long 
been  obsolete  in  all  places  where  good  workmanship  is  held  in 
honor.  A  water-tight  pen  of  planks,  about  four  feet  by  seven, 
must  be  made,  with  plank  bottom,  and  sides  about  ten  inches 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  45 

high.  This  will  give  room  for  treating  one  cask  of  lime  at  a 
time. 

After  the  lime  is  slaked,  and  all  the  lumps  reduced  to  smooth 
paste,  it  should  stand  as  long  as  possible  before  mixing  with  the 
sand,  which  may,  if  the  lime  is  good,  be  added  in  the  proportion  of 
two  parts  of  sand  to  one  of  the  lime  paste,  or  five  to  one  of  dry  lime. 

There  is  a  common  error  that  cement  will  take  more  sand  than 
lime.  This  arises  from  the  fact  that  in  mixing  cement  it  is  gener- 
ally allowable,  unless  great  strength  is  required,  to  add  sand  to  the 
dry  cement  powder  in  the  proportion  of  three  to  one,  or,  as  the 
mixture  is  usually  effected,  one  shovelful  of  cement  to  three  of 
sand,  whereas  for  lime  mortar  the  rule  of  two  parts  by  measure 
of  sand  to  one  of  lime  paste  cannot  be  exceeded  without  injury ; 
but  as  the  crude  lime  swells  in  slaking  to  about  two  and  a  half 
times  its  original  bulk,  a  quantity  of  sand  equal  to  double  the 
amount  of  hydrated  paste  would  represent  five  times  the  bulk  of 
the  original  lime  lumps.  If  the  cement  were  mixed  with  water 
before  adding  the  sand,  which  would  be  impossible,  on  account  of 
its  rapid  setting,  the  result  would  be  the  same,  since  the  cement 
expands  very  slightly,  if  at  all,  in  slaking. 

Our  specifications  require  that  the  mortar  for  foundations 
should  be  made  with  "one-half  cement."  Let  the  contractor  and 
his  men  understand  that  this  means  one  cask  of  cement  to  each 
cask  of  lime ;  not  one-half  barrel  of  cement  to  one  of  lime,  as  some 
masons  pretend  to  interpret  it. 

The  lime  mortar  alone  will  stand  for  weeks  unchanged,  but 
the  addition  of  cement  causes  it  to  set  in  a  few  hours ;  it  should 
therefore  be  mixed  only  as  required  for  immediate  use.  Some 
judgment  and  observation  will  be  needed  to  make  sure  that  the 
cement  is  added  in  the  proper  proportion,  unless  it  is  mixed  with 
the  sand  previous  to  adding  the  lime,  which  is  not  practicable  un- 
less it  can  be  used  immediately,  since  the  cement  would  slake  by 
absorption  of  moisture  from  the  air  on  standing.  The  mixture 
should  be  thoroughly  made,  which  will  be  shown  by  the  uniform 
color  of  the  mortar  and  the  absence  of  streaks  or  spots. 

Specifications  are  sometimes  so  loosely  drawn  as  to  omit  all 
mention  of  the  mortar.  In  such  cases  the  character  of  the  mix- 
ture and  the  proportion  of  materials  will  depend  greatly  upon  local 


46  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

custom,  but  the  practice  of  mixing  the  lime  for  mortar  of  found- 
ation-walls with  at  least  one-half  its  bulk  of  hydraulic  cement  is 
so  universal  and  so  necessary,  where  ground  lime  or  some  other 
variety  having  hydraulic  properties  cannot  be  procured,  that  it 
should  be  required  in  all  cases  where  mortar  is  used  below  the 
ground  surface.  In  wet  or  springy  soils,  or  for  heavy  buildings, 
the  dose  of  cement  should  be  equal  to  that  of  lime. 

As  for  the  quality  of  materials,  neither  law  nor  custom  pre- 
sume any  but  the  best  to  be  intended  where  nothing  is  said  to  the 
contrary  in  the  specifications.  Under  no  pretext  can  damaged  or 
inferior  lime  or  cement,  or  loamy  sand,  be  imposed  by  a  builder 
upon  his  employer. 

THE  FIFTH  VISIT 

Before  his  next  visit,  let  the  superintendent  provide  himself 
with  a  light  steel  rod :  steel  wire  three-sixteenths  or  one- fourth  of 
an  inch  in  diameter  can  be  obtained  at  the  hardware  stores  in 
pieces  about  five  feet  long,  which  answer  very  well.  Let  him 
divide  his  inspection  as  before :  first  a  tour  around  the  walls  out- 
side, then  inside ;  next  a  survey  of  the  materials  inside  the  excava- 
tion, and  lastly  of  those  outside.  The  concrete  piers  are  found  to  be 
nearly  done.  They  should  be  completed  and  left  for  a  week  or  two 
to  harden.  The  footings  are  nearly  all  in,  the  masonry  under  the 
north  and  south  exterior,  or  aisle  walls,  is  three  or  four  feet  above 
the  cellar-bottom,  and  the  clerestory  foundation  several  courses 
high.  The  tower  foundation  is  also  started,  and  the  drainage- 
well  and  trench  in  that  place  ready.  We  notice  dust  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  concrete,  which  otherwise  appears  well  mixed,  and  is 
about  as  hard,  and  of  much  the  same  consistency,  as  ordinary 
sweet  chocolate.  By  breaking  off  a  piece  and  rubbing  it  on  the 
hand,  a  rough  judgment  can  be  formed  of  its  composition.  If  it 
contains  too  much  sand,  it  will  lack  coherence,  and  crumble  away. 
We  direct  that  the  dust  shall  be  washed  clean  off  the  surface  of 
the  piers  before  the  next  layer  of  concrete  is  added ;  otherwise  the 
two  layers  will  not  adhere. 

Outside  the  aisle  walls  the  gravel  has  been  filled  in  as  fast  as 
they  were  built  up.  This  is  customary  and  proper,  but  we  will 
have  a  hole  dug  to  satisfy  ourselves  that  the  outside  of  the  wall 
has  been  pointed  as  we  directed.  If  not,  we  order  the  whole  to  be 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


47 


dug  out,  the  wall  thoroughly  wet,  and  the  pointing  done  in  a 
proper  manner.  If  all  is  satisfactory,  we  will  remind  the  work- 
men to  puddle  the  gravel  as  fast  as  it  is  put  in,  by  throwing  on 
water.  If  water  is  difficult  to  get,  the  gravel  may  be  packed  with 
wooden  rammers.  In  a  clayey  soil,  the  filling  next  the  outside  of 
the  wall  should  not  be  of  the  excavated  material,  but  gravel  or 
cinders  should  be  obtained,  at  least  for  the  lower  part. 

As  we  pass  around  the  building,  we  take  care  to  look  at  the 
lines  from  which  the  walls  are  being  built.  They  will  probably 
be  shown  by  cords  stretched  between  the  batter-boards,  from 
which  plumb-lines  hanging  at  intervals  serve  to  transmit  the 
required  points  to  the  cellar-bottom  where  the  men  are  at  work ; 
and  the  batter-boards  should  be  exam- 
ined to  see  that  the  cords  are  attached 

( 


at  the  proper  notches ;  if  these  are  cor- 


Fig.  32 

rect,  we  must  observe  whether  the  masonry  is  being  laid  exactly 
to  the  lines  so  given.  Nothing  is  easier  than  to  make  mistakes 
in  these  respects  at  the  outset,  which  will  be  very  difficult  to  rem- 
edy afterwards.  It  may  often  be  observed  that  a  few  courses  in 
a  wall  have  been  built  incorrectly,  and  the  line  having  been  soon 
afterward  rectified,  the  masonry  is  built  out,  overhanging  these 
courses  either  on  one  side  or  the  other,  so  as  to  recover  its  proper 
position.  Any  such  work  should  be  immediately  taken  down, 
and  rebuilt  correctly  from  the  bottom.  A  want  of  firmness  and 
decision  in  this  respect  on  the  part  of  the  superintendent  will  be 
the  source  of  much  greater  troubles  afterwards. 

So  far  as  we  observe,  the  workmanship  of  the  wall  is  tolerably 
good;  the  horizontal  joints  are  well  broken,  giving  a 
good  longitudinal  bond,  and  the  cross  bond  is  main- 
tained by  a  sufficient  proportion  of  stones  extending  through  the 


Bonding 


48  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

whole  thickness  of  the  wall.  (Fig.  31.)  If  any  portions  had 
come  to  our  notice  where  vertical  joints  came  one  above  the  other 
(Fig.  32)  through  three  or  four  successive  courses,  we  should  at 
once  have  ordered  them  torn  down  and  rebuilt,  but  none  appear. 
It  will,  however,  be  well  to  watch  the  men  from  time  to  time,  and 
observe  their  manner  of  working.  The  acquaintance  with  their 
individual  characters  thus  formed  will  save  much  time  subse- 
quently, by  showing  us  in  what  quarters  to  look  most  sharply  for 
careless  indifference  to  orders,  intentional  shirking,  and  well- 
meaning  ignorance,  as  well  as  where  to  expect  intelligence, 
faithfulness  and  skill. 

As  we  pass  along  by  the  aisle  wall  we  notice  a  mason  at  a  little 
distance  haranguing  his  companions  on  some  subject  about  which 
he  seems  to  have  a  flow  of  words,  if  not  of  ideas.  Seeing  us 
coming,  he  hastily  shovels  up  a  trowelful  of  gravel  and  stone  chips 
from  beside  him,  and  throws  them  dry  into  a  cavity  in  the  stone- 
work before  him,  then  dashes  a  quantity  of  mortar  on  the  top,  and 
smooths  it  over.  To  all  appearance,  his  part  of  the  wall  is  done 
just  like  his  neighbors'  work,  but  our  suspicions  have  been  aroused, 
and  we  approach  and  thrust  the  steel  rod  down  into  the  fresh 
masonry.  The  supple  wire  insinuates  itself  among  the  stones  far 
down  into  the  wall,  meeting  now  and  then  with  the  slight  resist- 
ance due  to  the  soft  mortar,  but  penetrating  many  void  places  of 
considerable  size,  which  are  instantly  detected  by  the  feeling.  One 
or  two  other  trials  give  the  same  result,  and  as  masonry  so  laid  is 
liable  to  settle  under  the  weight  of  the  walls  above,  besides  being 
permeable  to  water,  we  order  the  man  to  take  down  his  work  and 
rebuild  it  with  joints  properly  filled.  He  grumbles,  but  begins 
with  a  very  poor  grace  to  remove  the  stones,  while  we  remain  near 
to  see  that  our  direction  is  strictly  complied  with,  testing  mean- 
while the  walling  laid  by  the  other  men,  which  proves  reasonably 
satisfactory.  It  is  too  much  to  expect  that  all  the  voids  will  be 
completely  filled,  but  the  steel  rod  will  quickly  show  the  difference 
between  good  and  bad  work.  Every  man  whose  workmanship  is 
once  found  to  be  careless  or  intentionally  defective  should  be 
noted,  and  the  portion  of  wall  on  which  each  is  engaged  should  be 
continually  tested. 

There  are  other  qualities  in  rough  masonry,  besides  a  large 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


49 


proportion  of  mortar,  which  are  essential  to  its  good  quality,  and 
about  many  of  these  also  the  steel  wand  will  inform  us. 

The  usual  practice  of  masons  in  rough  walling  is,  after  setting 
the  larger  stones,  to  fill  the  interstices  with  "chips,"  or  even 
pebbles,  more  or  less  carefully  fitted,  put  in  dry;  then  to  dash  in 
mortar,  trusting  that  it  will  work  its  way  into  the  crevices.  It 
does  so  to  a  great  extent,  especially  if  the  wall  is  grouted  occa- 
sionally with  thin  mor- 
tar, but  the- dishonest  or 
indifferent  men  shirk  the 
trouble  of  fitting  in  the 
smaller  stones  one  by 
one,  and  content  them- 
selves with  throwing  in 
a  lump  or  two  of  any 
shape,  and  then  a  quan- 
tity of  small  chips,  which 
catch  in  the  crevices  and 
hang  long  enough  to  al- 
low a  fair  bed  of  mortar 
to  be  spread  over  them, 
hiding  the  empty  cavities 
below.  This  sort  of  work 
is  immediately  detected 
by  the  steel  rod,  which 
can  be  felt  to  shake  and 
dislodge  the  loose  pieces. 
The  very  best  workmen  Fig.  34 

avoid  either  of  these  methods,  and  place  no  stone,  even  the  small- 
est chip,  except  in  a  bed  of  mortar  prepared  to  receive  it,  rubbing 
it  well  in,  and  settling  it  with  blows  of  the  trowel  or  hammer, 
again  driving  smaller  fragments  into  the  mortar  which  is  squeezed 
up  around  it,  so  that  nowhere  does  stone  meet  stone  without  a 
cementing  layer.  The  men  who  do  work  of  this  kind  should  be 
remembered,  and  the  others  incited  to  imitate  them  as  far  as 
possible. 

The  following  points  should  be  constantly  and  carefully  ob- 
served.    In  laying  the  larger  stones,  the  workmen  will  of  them- 
4 


c;o  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

selves  set  the  smoothest  face  toward  the  visible  side  of  the  wall ; 
the  superintendent  must  see  that  the  outer  side,  which  will  be 
buried  in  the  ground,  has  also  a  good,  smooth  face ;  that  the  bot- 
tom bed  of  each  stone  is  level,  or  nearly  so;  or  if  not,  that  the 
masonry  on  which  it  is  to  rest  is  brought  up  with  mortar  and  stone 
chips  to  fit  its  concavities  before  it  is  laid ;  that  there  are  plenty  of 
headers,  or  bond  stones,  extending  across  the  wall  from  side  to 
side  to  prevent  its  splitting;  that  long  stretchers  running  length- 
wise of  the  wall  are  sufficiently  numerous ;  and  that  all  angles  are 
tied  by  long  stones  laid  alternately  in  either  wall.  (Fig.  33.) 

Care  must  be  taken  in  building  up  the  wall  to  keep  in  mind  the 
position  of  the  window  and  door  openings  which  are  to  come 
above.  The  tendency  always  is  for  masonry  below  a  pier  to  settle 
under  the  excess  of  weight,  down  to  the  very  footings,  tearing 
itself  away  from  the  less  compressed  portion  under  the  opening 
(Fig.  34),  so  that  long  stones  should  be  built  in,  extending  from 
the  part  under  the  pier  to  that  under  the  opening,  to  carry  the 
weight  out  and  distribute  it  uniformly  over  the  whole  foundation. 
For  the  same  reason,  if  the  sills  of  openings  are  built  into  the  wall, 
instead  of  being  "slipped"  in  afterwards,  they  must  be  pinned  up 
only  at  the  ends,  a  clear  space  of  half  an  inch  being  left  between 
their  under  sides  and  the  masonry  below  them,  which  should  not 
be  pointed  up  until  the  completion  of  the  building :  otherwise  the 
settlement  of  the  piers  will  carry  down  the  ends  of  the  sill  more 
than  the  middle  part,  and  it  will  be  broken. 

The  proper  proportion  of  headers  varies  according  to  circum- 
stances, but  in  an  ordinary  foundation  one  stone  at  least  in  every 
space  of  five  feet  square  should  extend  through  the  whole  thick- 
ness of  the  wall. 

An  opening  should  be  left  for  drain-pipes  to  pass  out,  and  for 
water  and  gas  pipes  to  enter  the  building,  covered  with  strong 
stone  lintels.  Neither  contractors  nor  their  men  ever  think  of  this, 
unless  reminded  by  the  superintendent,  and  in  consequence,  when 
the  time  comes  for  laying  the  pipes,  ragged  holes  have  to  be 
broken  through  the  wall,  at  the  imminent  risk  of  causing  settle- 
ments. 

A  very  important  element  in  determining  the  character  of  the 
foundation  walling  is  the  height  of  the  masonry  above  it.  Not 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  5 1 

only  will  a  high  and  heavy  wall  compress  a  loamy  or  other  yield- 
ing ground  beneath  it  more  than  an  adjoining  light  wall,  but  the 
mortar  joints  in  the  high  wall,  if  laid  in  the  same  way  as  those  of 
the  lighter  wall,  will  be  squeezed  into  a  smaller  compass  by  the 
greater  weight;  a  very  considerable  inequality  of  settlement  result- 
ing from  the  combined  effect  of  the  two  causes,  with  consequent 
dislocation  of  the  masonry. 

To  illustrate  this  by  the  example  before  us :  The  tower  at 
the  south-west  corner  of  the  church,  disregarding  for  the  present 
the  circumstance  that  it  will  stand  on  a  rock  foundation,  while  the 
adjacent  walls  rest  upon  gravel  and  clay,  is  to  be  so  high,  and  the 
masonry  near  the  bottom  so  heavily  weighted,  in  comparison  with 
the  light  and  low  aisle  wall  which  adjoins  it  on  the  south-east,  that 
if  the  lower  portion  of  the  two  were  to  be  built  up  together,  in 
the  same  manner,  with  stones  of  the  same  size,  in  ordinary  mor- 
tar, the  compression  of  the  mortar  in  the  tower  under  the  increas- 
ing weight  would  be  so  much  greater  than  in  the  aisle  wall  that 
by  the  time  the  spire  was  finished,  of  two  stones,  one  in  the  aisle 
wall  and  the  other  in  that  of  the  tower,  originally  set  at  the  same 
level,  the  latter  might  be  forced  down  two  inches  or  more  lower 
than  the  other;  a  movement  which  would  cause  dislocation  the 
whole  height  of  the  aisle  wall.  Many  stone  church-towers  show 
this  effect,  which  can,  however,  be  avoided  by  proper  care.  There 
are  three  ways  in  which  the  difficulty  may  be  met.  One  is  to 
make  the  tower  masonry  of  the  largest  stones,  as  high  as  the  top 
of  the  aisle  wall,  making  the  aisle  wall  of  small  stones.  In  this 
way  the  number  of  joints  in  the  high  wall  will  be  so  much  less 
than  in  the  low  one  that  although  the  compression  of  each  will  be 
greater,  the  aggregate  settlement  will  be  about  the  same.  Anoth- 
er expedient  is  to  make  the  mortar  joints  in  the  high  wall  thin, 
and  those  in  the  low  adjoining  wall  thick.  The  third  is  to  lay  the 
high  wall  in  cement,  and  the  low  one  in  mortar  made  mostly  of 
lime;  then,  the  contraction  of  the  cement  joints  being  relatively 
much  less  than  with  lime  mortar,  the  total  settlement  can  be  kept 
nearly  equal  in  the  two  walls. 

The  rationale  of  the  last  method  depends  upon  the  distinction, 
which  should  never  be  lost  sight  of,  between  the  "setting"  action 
in  lime  and  cement.  Strictly  speaking,  pure  lime  mortar  does 


C2  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

not  "set."  The  soft  paste  resulting  from  the  slaking  process,  if 
exposed  to  the  air,  or  placed  on  a  piece  of  blotting  paper,  or  be- 
tween dry  and  absorbent  bricks,  will  lose  a  little  of  the  water  used 
in  mixing,  leaving  a  firm,  damp  mass  of  hydrate  of  lime,  which 
consists  of  pure  lime  holding  in  a  loose  chemical  union  about  twice 
its  bulk  of  water.  This  water  still  continues  to  evaporate  slowly, 
and  the  paste  to  diminish  in  bulk,  during  a  period  of  months, 
years,  or  even  centuries,  if  the  wall  is  very  thick;  and  if  the 
hydrated  lime  forms  the  cementing  medium  between  the  courses 
of  a  wall,  the  wall  will  settle  as  long  as  the  evaporation  and 
shrinkage  continue.  The  superposition  of  a  heavy  weight  in- 
creases the  settlement,  partly  by  the  forcing  of  the  semi-plastic 
material  out  of  the  joints,  and  partly  by  the  pressing  out  of  the 
water  of  hydration  more  rapidly  than  it  would  pass  off  by  natural 
evaporation.  This  indefinite  shrinkage  of  the  lime  is  the  prin- 
cipal, perhaps  the  sole  reason  for  the  addition  of  sand  to  mortar. 
The  particles  of  sand  being  incompressible,  and  divided  from 
each  other  by  thin  layers  of  lime,  the  contraction  of  these  layers 
exerts  a  comparatively  small  influence  on  the  total  mass,  so  that 
a  joint  of  half  an  inch  in  height,  in  mortar  of  lime  and  sand,  will 
usually  settle  less  than  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch ;  while  if  made  of 
lime  only,  it  might  shrink  half  its  width. 

With  cement  the  action  is  quite  different.  When  mixed  into 
paste  with  water,  a  few  minutes  only  elapse  before  the  soft  paste 
suddenly  assumes  a  firm  consistency,  so  as  to  resist  the  impression 
of  a  pointed  instrument.  This  is  the  "set,"  and  forms  a  true 
chemical  reaction,  by  which  a  portion  of  the  water  enters  into 
close  combination  with  the  cement,  from  which  it  cannot  after- 
wards be  separated  except  by  heating  to  redness.  With  the  help 
of  this  combined  water,  the  constituents  of  the  cement  enter  upon 
a  series  of  reactions  by  which  they  gradually  form  a  hard  stone, 
little  less  in  bulk  than  the  original  cement  paste,  and  with  some 
cements  even  equal  to,  or  greater  than  the  volume  of  paste.  This 
characteristic  quality  of  cement  gives  it  great  value  in  controlling 
the  settlement  which  forms  an  important  element  in  the  consid- 
eration of  stone  structures;  and  by  mixing  cement  and  lime  in 
different  proportions  a  whole  range  of  mortars  can  be  obtained 
having  any  desired  quality  as  to  diminution  of  bulk  in  hardening. 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  53 

Returning  to  our  tower,  for  which  we  have  to  choose  among 
the  three  methods  of  keeping  the  masonry  at  the  same  level  in  its 
walls  and  in  the  comparatively  low  aisle  wall  adjoining;  we 
reflect  that  to  lay  the  tower  walls  in  cement  and  the  adjoining 
wall  in  lime  mortar  would  be  sufficient,  but  the  contrast  in  color 
between  the  brown  cement  joints  and  the  white  of  the  lime  would 
be  objectionable  in  the  walls  above  ground.  The  same  would  be 
the  case,  in  a  less  degree,  if  we  were  to  lay  the  tower  wall  with 
thin  joints,  using  thick  joints  in  the  aisle  wall.  If  we  lessen  the 
number  of  joints  in  the  tower,  instead  of  diminishing  their  width, 
by  building  it  of  large  stones,  the  same  end  will  be  attained,  and 
the  contrast  of  the  massive  masonry  in  the  one  with  the  small 
stones  in  the  other  will  be  rather  piquant  and  attractive  than 
otherwise. 

But  we  must  not  forget  the  difficulties  presented  by  the  ground 
beneath  the  tower  and  the  adjacent  walls.  The  trenches  show 
that  under  the  tower  we  can  reach  the  rock  everywhere,  at  least 
by  going  down  two  or  three  feet  below  the  general  bottom  of  the 
trenches  in  one  corner.  All  this  foundation  will  then  stand  on 
the  solid  ledge.  To  get  a  rock  foundation  for  the  aisle  wall 
would,  however,  require  very  deep  digging,  the  ledge  sloping 
rapidly  eastward;  and  yet  if  one  wall  is  built  on  rock  and  the 
other  on  compressible  ground,  the  latter  will  settle  and  tear  itself 
away.  The  soil  overlying  the  rock  under  the  aisle  wall,  as  shown 
by  the  trench,  is  gravel,  which  has  the  advantage  of  being  prac- 
tically as  incompressible  as  the  rock  itself  if  not  loaded  beyond  a 
certain  point.  In  general,  it  will  not  yield  percepti-  compressi- 
bly  under  a  less  load  than  five  tons  to  the  superficial  biiityof 
foot,  but  to  make  sure,  we  will  take  three  tons  as  the  Gravel 
limit,  as  a  soil  of  so  little  depth  over  a  ledge  is  less  reliable  than  if 
it  were  deeper.  We  will  reckon  up  roughly  the  weights  with 
which  the  soil  is  to  be  loaded.  The  foundation,  allowing  an  extra 
foot  for  the  excess  in  width  of  the  footings  over  the  rest  of  the 
wall,  is  12  feet  high,  2  feet  thick.  The  wall  above  is  20  feet  high, 
20  inches  thick;  total,  12  X  2  =24 

20  X  i^=33 

—  57  cubic  feet  of  masonry  to 
each  linear  foot  of  the  aisle  wall,  which  at  150  pounds  per  cubic 


e4  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

foot,  an  average  weight  for  such  masonry,  will  amount  to  8,550 
pounds. 

Of  the  roof,  which  slopes  at  angle  of  45°,  about  two-thirds  the 
weight  will  come  on  the  aisle  wall,  the  rest  being  borne  by  the 
clerestory  wall.  The  roof,  measured  on  the  slope,  is  1 5  feet  wide ; 
Calculation  of  ^e  we^nt  °^  rafters,  boarding  and  slate,  and  plaster- 
Weight  on  ing  on  the  under  side,  may  be  taken  as  30  pounds  per 
Foundation  superficial  foot.  Adding  the  possible  weight  of  wet 
snow  and  ice,  40  pounds  per  superficial  foot,  makes  70  pounds  per 
square  foot,  which  multiplied  by  the  width,  15  feet,  gives  1,050 
pounds  to  each  linear  foot  of  roof.  Two-thirds  of  this,  or  700 
pounds,  is  added  to  the  previous  weight  of  the  masonry,  8,550 
pounds. 

One  more  burden  must  be  calculated  and  added  to  the  rest  to 
find  the  whole  load  which  will  need  to  be  sustained  by  the  subsoil 
beneath  the  wall :  that  is,  the  floor,  which  being  level,  rests  half  on 
the  aisle  and  half  on  the  clerestory  wall.  The  span  is  10  feet,  so 
that  5  square  feet,  weighing  30  pounds  per  foot,  with  a  possible 
additional  load  of  120  pounds,  will  give  5  X  150  =  750  pounds 
more,  to  be  added  to  the  total  pressure  on  the  footings,  the  whole 
amounting  to  8,550  +  750  +  700=  10,000  pounds,  or  exactly  five 
tons,  on  each  linear  foot  of  wall.  As  the  wall  is  two  feet  thick, 
the  weight  on  each  linear  foot  is  divided  over  two  superficial  feet, 
making  two  and  one-half  tons  on  each.  We  have  increased  the 
spread  of  the  footings  from  the  usual  six  inches  on  each  side  to 
twelve ;  this  will  divide  the  burden  at  the  point  of  contact  with  the 
earth  over  four  square  feet  instead  of  two,  making  the  pressure 
but  one  and  one-quarter  tons  to  the  superficial  foot  of  soil.  This 
is  sufficiently  far  within  the  limits  of  resistance  to  compression  to 
give  assurance  that  no  settlement  of  the  substratum  is  to  be  feared. 

We  have  then  only  to  direct  that  the  largest  stones  shall  be 
selected  for  the  tower  and  its  foundations,  that  every  stone  shall 
be  hammered  well  down  into  its  bed,  so  as  to  bring  the  surfaces 
as  nearly  as  possible  into  contact,  and  that  all  the  crevices  shall  be 
thoroughly  filled  with  stone  chips  and  mortar.  The  aisle  wall 
adjoining  is  to  be  built  of  smaller  stones,  and  tied  into  the  tower 
wall  every  few  feet  in  height  with  long  stones  as  well  as  with  iron 
anchors. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  55 

In  bedding  the  tower  footing-stones  upon  the  rock,  any  little 
ridges  or  projections  on  the  surface  of  the  ledge  must  be  ham- 
mered off,  so  as  to  give  a  moderately  even  bed,  and  small  stones 
and  mortar  must  be  built  up  to  fit  the  irregularities  of  the  under 
side  of  the  footing-stone,  and  finally,  a  thick  bed  of  mortar  spread 
over  all,  so  that  there  will  be  no  cavities  under  the  stone.  All  the 
heavy  blocks  should  be  laid  with  a  derrick,  so  that 
they  can  be  held  suspended  over  their  place  while  the 
bed  is  being  prepared,  and  if  they  are  very  irregular, 
lowered  into  place  and  then  raised  again,  so  that  the  impression 
made  in  the  soft  mortar  will  show  whether  the  bed  is  exactly 
fitted.  The  practice  of  rolling  the  stones  into  their  place  with 
crowbars  must  never  be  permitted  in  a  heavy  wall.  The  bars  tear 
up  and  dislocate  the  bed  of  small  stones  and  mortar  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  is  impossible  to  be  sure  that  the  stone  when  so  laid 
does  not  rest  on  the  edges  of  two  or  three  little  chips,  which  will 
crush  and  cause  serious  settlements  when  an  increased  load  comes 
to  be  placed  upon  them. 

It  will  not  be  so  easy  to  make  a  neat  outside  and  inside  face  to 
the  foundation-wall  of  large  blocks,  but  it  should  be  done,  espe- 
cially on  the  outside,  even  if  some  of  the  stones  have  to  be  dressed 
off.  It  is  dangerous  in  a  heavy  building  to  leave,  as  is  often  done, 
the  larger  pieces  in  a  foundation-wall  projecting  outside,  to  save 
the  trouble  of  cutting  away  the  excess  of  size.  Not  only  will 
water  get  into  the  wall  by  running  along  the  top  of  such  a  stone, 
but  hard  earth,  or  a  pebble,  may  be  wedged  under  the  projecting 
end,  so  as  to  keep  it  up  while  the  wall  settles  under  the  increasing 
load,  causing  a  bad  crack  beneath  it,  and  throwing  the  whole 
weight  on  the  inner  end  of  the  stone,  which  is  likely  either  to  give 
way  altogether,  or  to  break  up  the  masonry  about  it. 

Our  tour  outside  the  walls  being  now  completed,  that  inside 
may  be  short.  We  must  see  that  the  drain  under  the  tower  does 
not  get  obstructed,  and  that  a  good  opening,  spanned  by  a  strong 
stone,  is  left  for  it  to  pass  beneath  the  walls.  Workmen  have  not 
so  high  a  respect  for  drain-pipes  as  architects,  and  will  often  cover 
up  a  choked  or  broken  pipe,  saying  nothing  about  it,  thinking  they 
will  be  out  of  the  way  before  the  trouble  is  discovered,  and  care- 
less of  the  very  great  expense  which  may  be  necessary  to  replace  it. 


56  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

The  clerestory  foundation  must  be  sharply  watched :  long  stones 
are  the  first  requisite  for  this  wall ;  everything  depending  on  the 
efficiency  with  which  the  concentrated  load  on  the  piers  is  spread 
out  laterally  over  the  foundation,  till  the  pressure  on  the  footings 
is  uniform  under  the  piers  and  openings  alike.     The 
Apertures9     workmen  must  be  cautioned  to  leave  an  opening  two  or 
three  feet  square  at  the  top  of  this  wall,  under  the  arch- 
es (Fig.  35),  and  the  same  precaution  must  be  observed  wherever 
any  portion  of  a  cellar  is  cut  off  by  walls  from  the  main  part,  in 

order  to  secure  circulation  of  air.  If 
deprived  of  this,  the  beams  of  the 
floor  above  are  sure  to  rot  before 
many  years,  and  will  sometimes  fall 
in  all  at  once  after  a  few  months. 

The  derricks,  of  which  two  or 
three  are  now  probably  set  up,  must 
be  examined.     Let  the  superintend- 
ent see  that  the  ropes  are  not  fraying 
out,  and  that  neither  the  mast  nor  the 
boom  is  cracked  or  sprung  out  of  perfect  straightness.     He  must 
.  also  observe  where  each  of  the  guy-ropes  is  fastened. 

Every  one  should  be  secured  to  a  growing  tree,  or  a 
post  set  five  feet  or  more  into  a  hole  in  the  ground,  and  the  earth 
refilled  and  packed  around  it.     If  any  guy-rope  has  been  carelessly 
fastened  to  a  fence-post,  which  is  very  likely  to  be 

Guy-hropaese°f  half  rotted  off  at  the  ground,  or  to  a  curbstone,  or  a 
boulder,  or  any  other  anchorage  not  perfectly  secure, 
orders  must  at  once  be  given  to  have  it  changed,  and  all  guys  must 
be  strictly  required  to  be  drawn  up  taut.  A  loose  derrick  rope, 
or  an  insufficient  anchorage,  is  terribly  tried  when  a  heavy  stone 
on  the  end  of  the  boom  is  swung  around  so  as  to  bring  the  strain 
suddenly  upon  it,  and  although  that  is  properly  the  contractor's 
affair,  a  little  attention  on  the  part  of  the  architect  will  do  no 
harm,  and  may  save  loss  of  property,  and  even  life.  The  found- 
ation-walls of  the  chancel,  it  should  not  be  forgotten,  are  to  be 
lined  with  brick,  and  anchors  must  be  built  in  to  hold  the  lining  as 
described  below.  We  will  remind  the  contractor  of  this  in  good 
season. 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


57 


The  last  thing  to  be  done  is  to  inspect  the  materials  delivered 
since  our  previous  visit,  which  will  end  our  duties  for  the  day. 

A  quantity  of  granite  for  the  face  of  the  basement  wall  above 
ground  has  been  sent,  already  cut;  it  being  very  common  to  cut 
the  harder  stones  at  the  quarry,  while  the  softer  freestones  are  cut 
at  the  building.  The  blocks  are  of  random  sizes,  and  vary  much 
in  thickness,  some  being  one  or  more  points  less  than  two  inches 
thick.  These  should  be  at  once  rejected,  no  matter  how  thick 
they  may  be  at  the  other  edges  (Fig.  36),  since 
their  corners  are  liable  to  break 
off  under  the  weight,  and  disfig- 
ure the  work.  Still  worse  are 
the  stones  which,  though  of 
Fig-  3(5  sufficient  thickness  around  the  Fig.  37 

edges,  are  hollow  in  the  middle.  (Fig.  37.)  Not  even  the  most 
skilful  backing  can  make  these  secure.  Usually,  the  minimum 
thickness  admissible  in  the  facing  blocks  is  mentioned  in  the  speci- 
fication, but  if  not,  nothing  under  six  inches  should  be  allowed  in 
the  basement  wall,  and  not  that  unless  all  such  stones  are  anchored 
to  the  backing.  It  is  rather  advantageous  to  have  the  stones  large 
on  one  bed  and  small  on  the  other,  provided  they  do  not  come  to 
too  thin  an  edge.  (Fig.  38.)  Such  stones  bond  well  together 
and  to  the  backing. 

It  is  common  in  specifications  to  require  that  granite  shall  be 
"free  from  knots,  sap,  shakes  and  rot."  Rotten,  or  crumbling 
granite  is  easily  detected,  as  are  also  the  brown 
stains  known  as  "sap,"  and  the  black  or  white 
lumps  called  "knots."  Shakes,  if  very  bad,  are 
shown  by  their  discolored  edges,  but  we  are  likely, 
with  some  kinds  of  granite,  to  find  stones  with 
seams  through  them,  which  are  tight  enough  to 
hold  together  while  the  stone  is  cut,  but  will,  after 
they  are  placed  in  the  wall,  open  by  the  effect  of  the 
weight  upon  them,  and  allow  rain-water  to  pene- 


Fig.  38 


trate.  Where  the  stone  is  thick  enough  to  extend  nearly  through 
the  wall,  a  great  deal  of  water  will  often  in  heavy  rains  blow  into 
the  building  through  a  seam  which  may  have  been  quite  imper- 
ceptible when  the  stone  was  set  in  place.  The  most  certain  way 


eg  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

of  detecting  blocks  so  affected  is  to  strike  them  with  a  hammer, 
rejecting  the  stones  which  do  not  ring  clearly. 

The  only  other  new  material  which  we  find  delivered  is  brick, 
of  which  two  lots  are  on  the  ground ;  one  near  the  west  end  of  the 
building,  which  we  find  to  be  mainly  composed  of  small  bricks,  of 
a  dark  color,  the  ends  of  many  being  black  or  bluish,  and 
generally  crooked  or  irregular  in  shape.  In  the  middle 
of  the  cellar  others  are  piled,  larger,  and  more  regular  in  shape,  but 
light-colored,  at  least  one  in  four  being  very  pale.  We  will  test  the 
hardness  of  these  by  actual  trial,  since  the  color  by  itself  is  an  un- 
reliable indication,  many  clays  yielding  a  light-colored  brick  of  very 
good  quality.  Selecting  two  of  the  paler  ones,  we  strike  them  to- 
gether ;  they  meet  with  a  dull  sound,  and  the  edges  crumble  at  the 
point  of  contact.  After  a  few  blows  one  breaks  in  two,  showing  an 
earthy  fracture,  destitute  of  the  compact,  hard  look  of  good  brick. 

The  reddest-looking  of  this  lot  ring  quite  clearly  when  struck 
together,  and  their  shape  is  in  their  favor,  but  the  men  could  not 
be  depended  on  to  pick  out  the  best  ones,  and  it  is  safest  to  order 
the  whole  lot  sent  back.  If  the  contractor  is  honest,  he  will  have 
ordered  good  brick,  and  if  the  superintendent  rejects  them,  the 
loss  will  not  be  his,  but  the  brick-maker's.  If  the  superintendent 
passes  them,  through  negligence  or  complaisance,  not  only  is  the 
contractor  deprived  of  his  support  in  attempting  to  compel  the 
dealer  to  furnish  better  materials,  but  he  is  likely  to  think  that  he 
need  not  himself  be  too  scrupulous  in  other  respects.  Let  the 
superintendent  make  a  note  of  having  rejected  the  bricks,  and  give 
the  contractor  a  memorandum  of  it ;  following  up  his  action  by  a 
close  watch  to  see  that  his  directions  are  carried  out.  Let  him 
never  allow  any  brick  of  which  he  can  crumble  the  edge  with  his 
fingers  to  remain  on  the  ground.  The  hard,  but  crooked  bricks, 
if  not  too  much  distorted,  may  be  utilized  in  the  backing  of  the 
stone-work,  or  in  forming  the  jambs  of  basement  openings,  but 
must  not  be  used  in  any  pier  or  arch. 

The  staging  lumber  will  need  occasional  attention.  Although 
with  us  the  architect  takes  no  responsibility  about  the  scaffold,  his 
directions  in  regard  to  it  will  be  listened  to  with  respect,  and  he 
has  an  undoubted  right  to  control  its  construction  where  that  may 
influence  the  execution  of  the  building. 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  59 

SIXTH   VISIT 

At  our  next  visit  we  find  the  first  staging  up,  the  drain-pipes 
on  the  ground,  centres  ready  for  the  arches  under  west  wall,  and 
the  arch  bricks  delivered.  We  go  around  the  outside  of  the  walls, 
then  inside,  then  examine  the  materials  inside,  and  lastly,  those 
outside.  This  should  be  the  regular  routine  of  each  visit,  as  the 
surest  way  of  observing  whatever  may  be  new  in  the  work. 

The  concrete  piers  are  firm  enough  to  build  the  arches  upon 
them,  the  foundations  are  going  on  well  and  nearly  finished,  with 
good  bond,  and  neatly  pointed  outside;  the  long  stones  under 
clerestory  wall  have  not  been  forgotten,  and  trials  with  the  steel 
rod  reveal  only  a  few  places  to  be  taken  out  and  filled  up.  In  the 
tower  foundation  the  opening  for  drain-pipe  is  properly  formed, 
and  the  large  stones  well  laid  and  bonded.  On  our  way  to  the 
tower,  we  watch  the  setting  of  the  capstones  to  the  concrete  piers. 
The  stones  have  been  cut  square,  with  "skew-backs"  formed  for 
the  arches  to  spring  from,  and  all  the  faces  "pointed"  to  a  uniform 
surface ;  the  top  of  the  concrete  is  well  wet,  a  layer  of  cement  mor- 
tar made  with  an  equal  bulk  of  sand  is  spread  over  it  an  inch  thick, 
and  the  stone  lowered  into  it,  and  beaten  down  by  blows  of  a 
sledge-hammer,  not  applied  directly  on  the  stone,  but  on  a  piece 
of  timber  interposed.  The  cement  will  soon  set,  and  the  centres 
can  be  placed  in  position  at  once  and  the  arches  commenced. 
These  should  be  built  in  separate  concentric  rings,  or 
rowlocks,  four  inches  thick,  rather  than  in  the  fashion 
called  "bonded,"  where  each  ring  is  tied  to  the  others  by  bricks  set 
the  eight-inch  way.  The  latter  has  some  advantage  in  point  of 
appearance,  but  the  arch  of  separate  rowlocks  possesses  a  certain 
elasticity,  and  power  of  accommodating  itself  to  the  weights  upon 
it,  which  make  it  much  better  in  heavy  constructions.  •  The  bricks 
must  be  very  regular  in  shape,  well  soaked  in  water, — not  merely 
sprinkled, — and  laid  with  mortar  of  equal  parts  of  cement  and 
sand.  The  arches  spanning  the  basement  openings,  behind  the 
straight  lintels  which  terminate  them  outside,  should  be  built  in  a 
similar  manner. 

None  of  the  granite  facing  of  the  basement  wall  has  yet  been 
set,  although  the  grade  lines  which  mark  its  commencement  are 
set  out  by  strings  stretched  between  stakes  outside.  ,We  take 


6o  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  question  the  contractor  about  the 
manner  in  which  he  proposes  to  anchor  the  face  to  the  backing. 
The  specification  indefinitely  requires  it  to  be  "well 
anchored,"  without  further  details.  Much  depends  on 
the  character  of  the  ashlar.  If  the  stones  are  thick,  with  many  of 
them  extending  through  the  whole  thickness  of  the  wall,  as  is 
common  in  Europe,  no  other  ties  will  be  necessary  to  keep  the 
weight  of  the  superstructure  from  forcing  the  facing  stones  off 
the  wall,  but  with  us  such  ashlar  varies  from  two  to  twelve  inches 
in  thickness,  according  to  the  value  of  the  material,  backed  by  a 
rubble  masonry  of  rough  stone  or  brick,  to  which  it  must  be  held 
by  iron  ties. 

A  four-inch  ashlar,  and  still  more  a  two-inch,  which  is  used 

only  for  facings  of  marble,  must  have,  for  a  high  wall,  at  least  one 

anchor  in  every  stone.     When  the  ashlar  is  thicker 

o?Ashiar9"    ^an  t^1^s>  ^v  may  be  much  less  numerous.     We  find 
our  granite  blocks  to  average  eight  inches  in  thick- 
ness, and  being  assured  by  the  contractor  that  the  stones  to  come 
will  be  of  a  similar  character,  we  agree  with  him  that  if  the 
anchors  are  so  distributed  that  there  shall  be  at  least  one  to  every 
three  feet  in  length,  and  two  feet  in  height,  the  work  shall  be 
accepted  as  satisfactory,  stipulating  also  that  the  last  course  of 
ashlar,  under  the  water-table  which  marks  the  transition  from 
granite  to  freestone  at  the  first-floor  level,  shall  have  an  anchor  in 
every  stone.     The  brownstone  ashlar  for  the  upper  part  of  the 
wall  will  be  of  about  the  same  thickness,  and  the  same  proportion 
of  anchors  is  directed  for  that  also;  every  stone  under  the  hori- 
zontal string-courses  and  cornices  to 
a    be  anchored,   in  the  same   way   as 
under  the  water-table.     The  anchors 
7    are    made    of    wrought-iron    strips 
p.  about  one  inch  wide,  and  as  much  as 

one-twelfth-inch  thick.  Iron  of  one- 
sixteenth-inch  thickness  is  sometimes  used,  but  is  too  light.  One 
end  is  turned  up  about  two  and  a  half  inches,  and  the  other  is 
turned  down  about  one  and  a  quarter  inches.  The  end  is  heated 
by  the  blacksmith  and  driven  by  a  blow  into  a  round  hole  made 
in  the  anvil,  which  rolls  it  into  a  tubular  shape  suited  for  inser- 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


61 


R 


tion  into  a  hole  drilled  in  the  top  of  the  stone  to  be  anchored. 

(Fig-  39-) 

The  drill-hole  should  be  one  and  a  half  or  two  inches  from  the 
face  of  the  ashlar  block,  and  the  length  of  the  anchor  should  be  so 
measured  as  to  extend  entirely  through  the  wall,  the  other  end 
turning  up  close  against  the  inner  face. 

As  these  ties  would  be  soon  destroyed  by  rust  if  used  in  their 
natural  state,  they  must  be  protected  by  tarring  or  galvanizing. 
The    latter    is    most    expensive,    and    per- 
haps best,  but  the  former  is  generally  em- 
ployed. 

In  setting  the  first  course  of  stone  above 
ground,  it  is  advantageous  to  have  it  over- 
hang the  foundation  wall  about  an  inch :  then 
the  rain-water,  which  flows  in  sheets  down 
the  exposed  surface  during  storms,  when  it 
reaches  this  point,  drips  off,  and  is  absorbed 
by  the  ground,  instead  of  continuing  its 
journey  down  the  face  of  the  foundation- 
wall.  (Fig.  40.)  Of  course,  this  must  be 
arranged  for  in  making  the  detail  drawings 
Fig.  40  jf  it  is  to  be  done  systematically.  At  all 

events,  the  construction  sometimes  seen,  where  the  base  course 
is  set  back  from  the  face  of  the  foundation,  leaving  a  narrow 
level  strip  on  top  of  it,  should  not  be  countenanced.  Such  a 
shelf  serves  only  to  catch  the  water  streaming  down  from  above 
and  conduct  it  into  the  masonry,  and  if  the  plans  require  such 
a  relative  position  of  the  foundation  and  superstructure,  the 
former  should  terminate  by  a  surface  sloping  back  to  the  line  of 
the  wall  above  it. 

In  supervising  the  facing  work,  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
appearance.  With  random  ashlar,  much  of  the  beauty  depends 
upon  the  frequency  with  which  the  horizontal  joints 
are  broken.  It  is  common  to  specify  for  such  work 
that  no  horizontal  joint  shall  extend  more  than  six 
feet,  and  this  is  a  good  rule  to  follow  in  all  cases.  The  difference 
between  a  neat  and  slovenly  walling  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  41,  a 
and  b.  In  b  the  effect- is  injured  not  only  by  the  long  horizontal 


62 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


joints,  but  by  the  frequent  occurrence  of  small  stones,  as  at  X,  Y, 
Z,  inserted  to  fill  awkward  vacancies. 

The  work  now  goes  on  without  intermission  until  the  granite- 
faced  wall  is  ready  to  receive  the  water-table  or  bevelled  course 
which  terminates  it.  (Fig.  42.)  This,  like  all  horizontal  string- 
courses, particularly  if  projecting,  should  be  composed  of  long 
stones,  running  back  as  far  into  the  wall  as  practicable.  They  are 
often  specified  to  have  the  top  bed  not  less  than  eight  inches  in  the 


-t   I— i 


Fig  410 


-M_J 

Fig.  41 & 


wall,  and  this  is  a  good  standard,  though  narrow  string-courses 
near  the  top  of  the  wall  may  perhaps  have  an  inch  or  two  less. 
Care  is  necessary  to  ascertain  the  exact  level  some  time  before  the 
wall  has  reached  the  required  point,  and  it  is  best  to  build  up  all 
the  corners  of  the  building  to  the  line  in  advance  of  the  rest,  and 
set  the  corner-stones  of  the  water-table,  levelling  them  carefully 
with  an  engineer's  instrument,  afterwards  bringing  the  interme- 
diate portions  up  to  the  line.  This  will  prevent  an  appearance 


Fig.  42 


Fig.  43 


like  this  (Fig.  43)  caused  by  the  attempt  to  regain  a  true  level 
after  the  wall  has  been  carried  up  nearly  to  the  top. 

The  quoins  or  corner  blocks  of  the  water-table,  as  indeed  of 
all  the  stone-work,  must  always,  for  appearance  sake,  show  a  wide 
head  on  both  sides  the  angle  (Fig.  44),  instead  of  being  cut  out  of 
a  stone  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  rest  (Fig.  45). 

The  water-table  indicates  the  level  of  the  main  floor,  and  while 
preparations  are  making  for  laying  it,  the  beams  may  be  placed  in 


Flooring 
Timber 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  63 

position.  Stock  for  these  has  been  delivered  at  intervals  previous- 
ly, and  carefully  examined,  several  loads  having  been  rejected  for 
containing  timbers  considerably  less  in  size  (since  the 
timber  shrinks  after  sawing)  than  the  specification 
calls  for,  while  others  have  been  thrown  out  on  ac- 
count of  pieces  badly  "shaken"  (Fig.  46)  ;  or  "waney"  (Fig.  47), 
through  having  been  sawed  too  near  the  outside  of  a  crooked 
piece,  so  that  a  part  of  the  wood  is  lacking ; 

or    weakened    by 

large    knots    near 

the  middle  of  the 

span.     The     nave 

and  chancel  floor 

beams  are  divided 

into  two  spans,  the 

inner  ends  of  each 


Fig.  44 


Fig-  45 


span  being  carried  on  a  line  of  girders  running  through  the  middle 
of  the  building  and  supported  by  brick  piers  under  the  nave,  and 
an  iron  column  in  the  society-room  under  the  chancel.  The  gird- 
ers of  the  main  floor  are  of  Georgia  pine,  eight  inches  by  sixteen, 
those  in  the  chancel  being  twelve  by  sixteen,  and  all  are  already  on 
the  ground.  It  is  necessary  to  have  these  properly  set  before  the 
beams  can  be  put  in  position ;  but  if  the  piers  were  to  be  built  up 
first,  and  the  heavy  timbers  laid  upon  them,  there  would  be  danger 
of  overturning  or  displacing 

iga 


them,  so  it  is  best  to  support 
the  girders  by  temporary 
wooden  shores  until  the  floor 
is  on,  and  afterwards  build 
up  the  piers  between  the 
shores.  As  there  is  ample 
head-room  in  the  cellar,  the 


Figs.  46,  47 


beams  are  simply  notched  upon  the  girders,  instead  of  framing 
them  in,  and  thereby  weakening  the  girders  with  mortises. 

The  carpenters  are  already  cutting  the  notches,  and  the  fore- 


man hastens  after  us  to  ask  whether  he  shall  "crown' 


'Crowning" 


the  beams,  and  if  so,  how  much.     Nothing  is  said 

about  it  in  the  specifications,  and  a  little  reflection  is  necessary 


64  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

before  a  reply  can  be  given.  The  crowning,  as  now  usually  prac- 
tised, consists  in  trimming  off  with  an  adze  the  upper  edge  of  the 
beams,  so  as  to  form  a  curve,  the  convexity  of  which  may  be  one 
inch  or  more,  as  required  (Fig.  48.)  Nothing  is  taken  off  the 
middle  of  the  timber,  so  its  strength  to  resist  a  distributed  weight 
is  not  impaired,  and  as  all  ordinary  beams  sag  a  little  under  their 
own  weight,  and  still  more  when  loaded  with  flooring  and  plaster, 
the  crowning  enables  this  sagging  to  be  compensated,  and  such  a 
beam,  when  suspended  at  the  ends,  will  be  level  or  slightly  convex 
on  top,  the  bending  due  to  the  weight  showing  itself  on  the  under 

side.     (Fig.  49.)     Form- 
r  "•••"••  • -^      erlv  t^  same  effect  was 

sought  by  shoring  up  the 

f             .  .  .      beams  strongly  in  the  cen- 

f"""""— — - , C"     tre,   so  as  to  bend  them 


Figs.  48,  49  upward,   and  then   either 

building    them    into    the 
walls,  or  confining  them 

Fi  """*      by  timbers  placed  against 

their  ends,  and  connected 
by  iron  tie-rods  passing  between  the  beams  (Fig.  50),  but  this 
method  is  objectionable,  and  is  now  rarely  used. 

In  order  to  determine  whether  crowning  by  the  other  mode  is 
desirable,  we  can  easily  calculate  the  probable  bending  of  the 
timbers,  or,  what  will  be  still  better,  experiment  on  the  spot,  by 
placing  one  of  the  beams,  the  top  of  which  has  been  previously 
ascertained  to  be  straight  and  true,  on  supports  at  the  proper 
distance  apart,  and  loading  it  at  the  middle  with  a  weight  equal  to 
half  the  load  which  will  come  upon  it  after  the  building  is  com- 
pleted. In  this  case  the  beams  of  the  main  floor  are  specified  to 
be  of  Georgia  pine,  all  to  be  three  by  twelve,  all  placed  sixteen 
inches  from  centres,  and  twenty  feet  long,  the  clear  span  being 
nineteen  feet  four  inches.  They  will  be  plastered  one  heavy  coat 
underneath,  and  covered  with  a  double  boarding.  Each  beam 
carries  the  whole  weight  of  the  flooring  above  it  and  the  plastering 
below  it,  from  the  central  line  of  the  interval  between  itself  and  the 
next  beam  on  one  side  to  the  corresponding  line  on  the  other  side, 
the  distance  between  these  two  lines  being  the  same  as  that  between 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  65 

the  centres  of  the  beams  themselves,  or  sixteen  inches.  Each  beam 
will  then  sustain,  independent  of  its  own  weight,  an  area  of  floor- 
ing 1 6  inches  wide  and  20  feet  long,  and  an  equal  area  of  plaster- 
ing, amounting  to  16  inches  (ij^  feet)  X  20  =  26%  square  feet 
of  each.  One  square  foot  of  dry  pine  board  an  inch  thick  weighs 
about  three  pounds,  and  as  the  boarding  is  double,  six  pounds  will 
represent  the  weight  of  flooring  per  square  foot.  Plastering  of 
the  kind  mentioned  will  weigh  about  six  pounds  per  square  foot, 
making  a  total  load  per  foot  of  12  pounds,  which  multiplied  by 
26%  will  give  320  pounds  as  the  distributed  load  on  the  beam, 
or,  including  its  own  weight,  486  pounds.  One-half  of  this,  or 
243  pounds,  applied  at  the  centre  will  produce  the  same  effect  as 
the  whole  distributed  load,  and  by  loading  our  experimental  beam 
in  this  way  the  amount  of  bending  can  be  at  once  ascertained.  A 
bucket  hung  over  the  middle  of  the  beam,  and  loaded  with  fifty- 
five  to  sixty  bricks  according  to  size,  or  with  two  men  standing  in 
it,  will  form  a  ready  means  of  applying  the  weight,  and  a  string 
tightly  stretched  between  the  ends  of  the  beam  will  show  the 
deflection,  which  we  find  in  this  case  to  be  less  than  a  quarter  of  an 
inch.  So  slight  a  deflection  is  not  worth  the  trouble  of  correcting 
by  crowning  the  beams,  especially  as  the  bridging  of  the  floor, 
which  is  required  by  the  specification,  affords  protection  against 
unequal  deflection;  and  we  therefore  inform  the  foreman  that  it 
will  not  be  required.  The  tops  of  the  beams  must,  however,  be 
well  levelled;  and  as  they  are  likely  to  vary  somewhat  in  depth, 
the  gauge  for  notching  them  to  fit  upon  the  girder  must  be  taken 
from  the  top,  not  from  the  bottom  edge.  The  ends  which  rest  on 
the  walls  need  not  be  notched,  but  are  "pinned  up"  with  chips  of 
stone  or  slate  to  the  required  height.  Wooden  chips  must  never 
be  used  for  this  purpose,  as  they  soon  rot  out,  and  allow  the  beam 
to  settle. 

Concerning  the  manner  in  which  the  beams  should  be  built 
into  the  wall,  there  is  much  diversity  both  of  opinion       Bevelling 
and  practice.     On  one  point,  however,  all  are  agreed ;       Ends  of 
that  the  ends  should  be  cut  on  a  bevel,  thus  (Fig.  51 ),       Beams 
the  variation  of  the  inclined  line  from  the  vertical  being  two  to 
four  inches,  according  to  the  depth  of  the  beam.     The  object  of 
this  is  to  prevent  the  destruction  of  the  wall,  in  case  of  fire,  by  the 

5 


66 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  Si 


fall  of  the  floor  when  burnt  through.  If  the  beams  are  beveled 
as  shown,  they  drop  out  quietly  when  their  outer  ends  are  con- 
sumed ;  but  if  left  square,  the  portion  in  the  wall  acts  as  the  short 
arm  of  a  powerful  lever,  whose  outer  end,  being  depressed  as  the 
floor  falls,  pries  the  wall  outward  with  immense  force.  (Fig.  52.) 
But  besides  this,  precaution  should  be  taken  lest  the  ends  of  the 
beams  absorb  moisture  from  the  founda- 
tion and  perish  by  dry-rot.  The  most  im- 
portant security  again  this  is  the  avoid- 
ance of  dampness  in  the  cellar  and  its  walls 
by  the  precautions  suggested  above,  with- 
out which  the  other  expedients  avail  little. 
If  reasonable  dryness  is  maintained  about 
them,  sufficient  further  protection  can  be 
obtained  by  leaving  a  small  open  space  about  the  ends  of  the 
timbers  for  circulation  of  air.  Some  simply  build  up  vertically 
behind  the  ends  of  the  beams,  filling  in  solidly  between  them,  and 
trusting  to  the  subsequent  shrinkage  of  the  wood  to  open  a  slight 
but  sufficient  communication  between  the  triangular 

Protection      hollow  behind  the  timber  and  the  air  of  the  cellar. 
against  Rot  .  . 

Others  increase  this  communication  by  tacking  a  piece 

of  zinc  or  felt  paper  over  the  end  of  the  beam,  letting  it  hang  down 
at  the  sides,  so  as  to  keep  the  masonry  at  a  small  distance  from 
the  wood.  Still  more  careful  constructors  build  up  a  recess  around 
each  timber,  leaving  it  free  on  all  sides ;  but  with  a  dry  foundation 
of  hard  stone,  laid  in  half  cement,  and 
the  floor  two  feet  or  more  above  the 
ground,  so  great  precaution  is  unneces- 
sary except  for  heavy  girders.  In  the 
present  case,  being  very  confident  of 
the  dryness  of  our  wall,  we  will  com- 
promise by  filling  in  closely  between  the 
beams  with  the  stone-work,  but  will 


Fig.  52 


leave  a  space  behind  them,  and  will  span  the  end  of  each  beam  by 
a  stone  or  a  couple  of  bricks,  so  as  to  open  a  communication  above 
the  beam  between  the  interior  space  and  the  air. 

When  the  first  tier  of  beams  has  been  laid  and  the  ends  built  up 
with  masonry,  the  work  of  the  superstructure  may  properly  be  said 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  67 

to  begin,  and  a  variety  of  new  cares  will  come  upon  us.     Here 
also  commences  a  considerable  divergence  between  the  practice  of 
different  localities  in  respect  to  many  details  of  con- 
struction.    In  the  Eastern  States,  and  to  an  increasing     structure 
extent  in  others,  the  next  step  after  laying  the  first-floor 
beams  and  bringing  the  walls  up  to  a  level  with  them,  is  to  cover 
the  whole  floor  with  cheap  inch  boards  of  hemlock  or  spruce,  gener- 
ally "thicknessed," — that  is,  planed  on  one  side  so  as  to 
reduce  them  to  a  uniform  thickness,  and  firmly  nailed 
down  in  place.     This  furnishes  a  convenient  starting-point  for 
future  operations ;  materials  are  stored  upon  it,  the  roof  is  framed 
upon  it,  stagings  are  erected  on  it,  and  the  men  move  freely  over  it. 

Whenever  it  becomes  necessary  to  reach  the  space  between  the 
beams,  for  nailing  bridging,  running  gas-pipes,  or  other  purposes, 
a  board  is  easily  taken  up  and  replaced  again,  and  at  the  very  end 
of  the  work  the  whole  is  brushed  clean,  the  holes  and  broken 
places  repaired,  and  an  upper  flooring  of  new,  clean,  fresh  boards 
put  down  over  it,  one  or  two  thicknesses  of  soft  felt  being 
laid  between,  making  a  strong,  handsome,  impervious  floor. 
Among  the  old-fashioned  builders  in  New  York  and  other  places 
this  method  is  thought  unreasonably  costly,  and  a  single  flooring 
only  is  used,  generally  of  one  and  a  quarter  inch  boards,  the  laying 
of  which,  of  course,  in  order  to  preserve  them  from  injury,  is 
delayed  as  long  as  possible,  all  the  operations  of  building  being 
meanwhile  carried  on  over  a  skeleton  of  beams,  traversed  in  differ- 
ent directions  by  lines  of  planks  which  have  continually  to  be  taken 
up  and  changed,  while  supplementary  planks  must  be  brought  and 
laid  down  to  hold  all  the  material  used  in  each  story,  and  if  a  tool 
is  dropped,  or  a  bolt  or  anchor-iron  rolls  from  its  place,  it  descends 
to  the  cellar,  where  the  workman  must  go  to  find  it,  or  let  it  be 
altogether  lost.  To  one  familiar  with  both  systems,  the  latter 
seems  to  involve  a  great  waste  of  time  and  labor,  and  the  testimony 
of  the  best  builders  is  that  the  double  flooring,  though  costing 
more  for  material,  is  so  much  more  economical  in  these  respects 
as  to  save  more  than  its  extra  cost  in  the  completed  building. 

We  find  this  construction  specified  for  the  structure  under  our 
charge,  and  in  less  -than  a  day  after  the  beams  are  on  and  levelled, 
they  are  covered  with  a  smooth,  firm  floor,  which  can  be  put  down 


68  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

with  extreme  rapidity,  being  laid  without  much  attempt  at  unnec- 
essary neatness.  The  boards,  being  of  hemlock,  are  full  of  shakes  ; 
some  are  cracked  in  a  dozen  places,  while  in  others  the  annual 
rings  have  separated,  and  can  be  peeled  off  by  layers.  Some  hem- 
lock lumber  is  much  better  than  this,  but  there  is  no  need  of  being 
very  particular.  As  soon  as  convenient  after  laying  the  floor,  the 
boards  are  taken  up  in  a  line  through  the  places  marked  for  bridg- 
ing the  beams.  There  are  to  be  two  rows  of  bridging 
in  each  span,  but  the  kind  is  not  specified.  Occasion- 
ally a  builder  is  found  who  imagines  that  a  floor  can  be  bridged 
by  fitting  in  square  bits  of  plank  between  the  beams  and  nailing 
them  in  place  ;  a  device  as  costly  as  it  is  perfectly  useless,  the  planks 
answering  no  purpose  whatever  except  to  burden  the  floor.  The 

proper  way  is  to  fit  in  strips 
diagonally  between  the  beams, 
of  sufficient  length  to  reach 
from  the  upper  edge  of  one  to 
the  lower  edge  of  the  next,  nail- 
ing them  firmly  in  place  with 
two  large  nails  at  each  end 


Fig 

A  double  row  is  necessary, 

so  arranged  as  to  abut  in  pairs  against  the  upper  and  under  sides 
of  each  beam,  and  the  effect,  if  arranged  as  they  should  be,  in 
lines  made  perfectly  straight,  marking  the  position  of  each  piece 
by  a  chalk-line  on  the  edges  of  the  timbers,  is  to  connect  the  beams 
together  by  a  kind  of  truss  (Fig.  54),  which  prevents  any  one 
from  bending  downward  without  carrying  down  with  it  a  number 
of  others,  greater  or  less  according  to  the  perfection  of  the  work- 
manship, but  ordinarily  about  ten.  Nothing  is  added  to  the  abso- 
lute strength  of  the  whole  floor,  but  any  single  overloaded  beam  is 
enabled  to  divide  its  burden  with  six  or  eight  of  its  neighbors, 
which  is  a  great  gain.  The  bridging  in  important  buildings  is 
usually  specified  to  be  of  two-inch  by  four-inch  pieces,  and  such 
may  sometimes  be  necessary;  but  for  ordinary  dwelling-house 
beams,  not  more  than  sixteen  inches  from  centres,  strips  one  inch 
or  one  and  a  quarter  inches  thick  and  four  inches  wide  will,  if  well 
fitted  and  nailed,  prove  quite  sufficient. 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  69 

The  ends  of  the  beams  which  rest  on  the  girders  should  be 
nailed  in  place,  and  in  addition  "dogs"  of  round  bar-iron  three- 
fourths  inch  in  diameter  and  about  eighteen  inches^ 
i  j    j  1         j        j  f    7  •        j  •  Tying  Beams 

long,  turned  down  at  each  end  and  fashioned  into  a    ' 

rough,  chisel-like  point   (Fig.   55),  should  be  driven  into  the 

abutting    ends    of    two    opposite 
beams,  at  intervals  of  about  eight 
feet,  the  whole  length  of  the  build- 
Fig*  S4  ing,  so  as  to  connect  the  beams 

Strongly  together ;  and  wall  anchors  of  flat  bar  iron. 

1s/r   .     ,      ,  .  ,  ,         -         /Wall  Anchors 

one-halt  inch  thick,  and  at  least  one  and  a  fourth 

inches  wide,  not  less  than  four  feet  long,  and  turned  up  four  inches 
at  the  end,  should  be  spiked,  by  means  of  holes  punched  for  the 
purpose,  to  the  sides  of  the  same  beams  that  are  tied  at  their  other 
ends  to  the  beams  beyond,  leaving  the  turned-up  end  to  be  built 
into  the  masonry  of  the  wall  above  the  water-table.  This  end  is 
often  split  into  a  fork  and  each  branch  turned  up,  much  improving 
its  hold,  and  the  inner  end  is  sometimes  turned  down  and  driven 
into  the  beam,  without  being  spiked  to  it.  These  different 
anchorages  form  a  continuous  tie  from  wall  to  wall,  and  although 
not  far  from  the  ground  will  assist  materially  in  keeping  the 
masonry  upright. 

Other  anchors  must  be  provided,  for  tying  the  angles  of  the 
building  in  the  superstructure.  These  should  be  of  iron  similar 
in  thickness  and  width  to  those  just  described,  turned  up  at  one 
end  and  down  at  the  other,  and  from 
four  to  six  feet  long.  They  should  be 
laid  alternately  in  each  of  the  walls 
forming  the  angle,  and  at  intervals  of 
from  four  to  eight  feet  in  height,  ac- 
cording to  the  amount  of  bond  obtained 
by  the  stones  alone.  Young  architects  Fig.  55 

are  often  surprised  to  find  that  so  much  iron  is  needed  in  masonry, 
which  they  imagine  by  the  descriptions  given  in  their  text-books  to 
be  quite  capable,  when  well  bonded,  of  holding  itself  together  with- 
out such  aid ;  but  our  common  structure  of  thin  ashlar  facing,  backed 
with  incoherent  rubble  and  small  stones,  is  a  very  different  matter 
from  the  combination  of  squared  blocks  to  which  the  books  refer. 


70  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

Still  another  set  of  anchors  must  be  built  into  certain  portions 
of  the  walls  as  they  progress,  to  hold  the  brick  lining  which  is 

subsequently  to  be  built  up  inside.  A  part  of  these 
HoHofwrwallsare  to  ^e  used  in  the  society-room  under  the  chancel, 

and  others  in  the  vestibule  which  forms  the  first  story 
of  the  tower.  The  former  of  these  lining  walls  is  to  be  plastered, 
but  not  the  latter,  and  the  anchors  needed  will  differ  a  little  in 
consequence ;  those  for  the  plastered  wall  being  arranged  to  project 
entirely  through  the  lining,  turning  up  two  inches  on  the  inner 
side,  while  the  others  must  stop  just  behind  the  inner  face,  so  as  to 
lie  concealed  in  the  joint.  They  should  be  made  of  iron  not  less 
than  one-sixteenth  inch  in  thickness  and  one  inch  wide,  tarred  or 
galvanized,  turned  up  at  the  end  in  the  outside  wall,  and  extend- 
ing halfway  through  it.  They  are  to  be  built  into  the  outside  wall 
at  intervals  of  two  feet  both  horizontally  and  vertically,  setting 
them  carefully  to  the  proper  length  by  measuring  from  the  outside, 
and  left  projecting  until  the  time  comes  for  building  the  lining 
wall,  when  they  will  be  found  all  ready  at  the  proper  place. 
Various  forms  are  given  to  these  ties,  all  intended  to  prevent  con- 
densed moisture,  or  water  driven  through  the  outer  wall,  from 
being  conducted  by  them  across  the  air-space  into  the  lining  wall, 
where  it  would  show  itself  by  a  permanent  spot  in  the  plastering. 
The  part  which  crosses  the  air-space  is  often  bent  downward  into 
a  V-shape,  from  which  the  water  drips  to  the  bottom  of  the  cavity, 
and  this,  if  the  depression  is  deep  enough,  is  moderately  effectual ; 
but  if  too  shallow,  the  mortar  falling  from  above  collects  on  the 
ties  in  quantity  sufficient  to  bridge  the  air-space  in  some  places, 
and  convey  water  through  to  the  lining.  Another  form  is  made 
by  twisting  the  ties  so  that  the  portion  in  the  air-space  is  vertical, 
and  collects  neither  mortar  nor  water.  The  iron  is  sometimes 
used  without  twisting,  but  set  in  the  vertical  joints,  thus  attaining 
the  same  result  at  less  expense,  but  with  greater  trouble ;  since  the 
irons,  being  set  at  random  in  the  wall,  never  coincide  exactly  with 
the  joints  of  the  brickwork,  and  have  to  be  bent  more  or  less  to 
reach  one.  When  inserted  in  the  horizontal  joints,  little  bending 
is  necessary,  hardly  more  than  an  inch  in  any  case;  but  when 
placed  in  the  vertical  joints,  the  lining  wall  being  composed  en- 
tirely of  stretchers,  a  lateral  movement  of  four  inches  may  often 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  ji 

be  required.  On  the  whole,  the  V-bent  ties  seem  to  be  most  suit- 
able in  our  case,  but  we  direct  that  they  shall  be  placed  vertically 
one  above  another,  so  that  those  above  may  shelter  those  below 
from  falling  mortar,  and  that  in  building  the  lining  every  row 
shall  be  cleaned  off  as  soon  as  the  one  above  it  is  fixed  in  place. 

While  these  matters  are  being  settled,  the  delivery  of  free- 
stone, both  cut  into  ashlar  for  the  facing  and  in  rough  blocks  for 
working  into  mouldings  and  arch-stones,  has  been  going  on.  This 
should  be  attentively  watched,  and  if  possible  a  visit 
should  be  made  to  the  quarry  to  inspect  the  different 
beds  of  rock.  There  is  usually  much  variation  in  the  quality  of 
stone  from  the  same  quarry,  one  end  frequently  running  into 
extreme  hardness,  while  the  other  is  too  soft  for  use ;  or  superposed 
strata  may  show  different  properties.  Variations  in  color  usually 
accompany  differences  of  texture,  and  each  different  tint  of  stone 
on  the  ground  should  be  tested  by  chipping  off  a  thin  piece,  and 
crumbling  the  edge  in  the  fingers.  The  hardest  sandstone  will 
resist  this  treatment  like  flint,  but  most  building  stones  crumble 
slightly  at  the  very  edge,  while  the  poorer  varieties  crush  easily. 
Few  of  the  ordinary  freestones  show  a  much  greater  hardness  than 
common  lump  sugar,  but  those  that  are  softer  should  be  rejected. 

Some  kinds  of  stone  have  an  extremely  annoying  defect  in  the 
shape  of  "sand-holes,"  which  are  small  formations  in  the  interior 
of  the  block,  often  similar  in  appearance  to  the  rest  of 
the  stone,  but  destitute  of  cementing  matter,  so  that, 
on  being  exposed  by  cutting,  the  sand  falls  out,  leaving  an  un- 
sightly hole,  which  cannot  be  successfully  concealed  by  filling  with 
cement.  Any  variety  of  stone  which  proves  to  be  affected  in  this 
way  should  therefore  be  entirely  rejected,  as  sand-holes  may  exist 
in  any  of  the  blocks,  undiscovered  until  the  stone  is  cut.  Some 
stones  contain  similar  cavities  filled  with  clay,  which  are  equally 
pernicious. 

Seams  injure  the  quality  of  many  classes  of  freestone,  but  are 
usually  more  easily  detected  than  those  in  granite.     All  sandstone 
is  stratified,  the  beds  varying  from  ten  feet  to  a  small 
fraction  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  the  divisions  be- 
tween the  strata  show  themselves  as  dark  streaks  on  the  edge  of 
the  stone.     Where  beds,  though  distinct,  are  strongly  cemented 


72  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

together,  the  stratification  rather  improves  the  quality  of  the  mate- 
rial by  the  beautifully  figured  appearance  which  it  gives  to  a 
smoothly-rubbed  surface,  as  in  the  stone  from  Portland,  Con- 
necticut, but  the  seams  are  not  always  tight,  or  if  they  are,  may 
not  remain  so,  and  the  stone  will  scale  or  "shell"  away,  so  that 
blocks,  especially  large  ones,  of  stratified  rock  should  be  "sounded" 
all  over  with  a  hammer  before  setting  in  the  building,  to  detect 
any  separation  between  the  interior  surfaces. 

The  stone-cutting  shed  will  now  become  a  point  of  special 
interest  at  each  visit,  since  here  will  be  carried  into  execution  the 
ornamental  details  of  the  building,  whose  accuracy  and  perfection 
of  workmanship  will  do  much  to  enhance  its  beauty. 

Among  the  first  things  done  in  the  cutting-shed  are  the  jamb- 
stones  for  the  windows.  The  sills  are  to  be  slip-sills;  that  is, 
inserted  between  the  jambs  at  some  subsequent  period,  and  the 
detailed  sections  of  them  are  not  yet  at  hand,  but  a  number  of 

jamb-stones  are  cut.  We  have  taken  care  to  make  our- 
Jamb-Stones       ,  e    .*     f      •*•  i         •  ,      * 

selves  perfectly  familiar,  not  only  with  the  position, 

height  above  the  floor,  and  exact  dimensions  of  every  window,  but 
also  with  the  depth  of  the  various  reveals ;  and  we  begin  at  once  to 
measure  the  smaller  stones  to  see  if  they  are  of  the  required  depth, 
finding  immediately  that  many  fall  short  an  inch  or  more.  These 
must  be  marked  and  laid  aside,  to  be  recut  for  other  purposes, 
making  sure  that  they  are  not  likely  to  be  built  into  the  wall,  for 
the  replacing  of  an  unsatisfactory  quoin  is  a  disagreeable  matter, 
and  it  is  still  worse  to  leave  it  in  and  endeavor  to  fill  out  the  defi- 
ciency by  patching. 

The  other  details  should  be  sharply  looked  to ;  sketches  made 
to  explain  obscure  drawings;  the  moulded  work  frequently  com- 
pared with  the  zinc  patterns  or  templets,  and  these  with  the  sec- 
tional drawings ;  the  carvings  criticised,  and  the  straight-edge  and 
square  frequently  applied  to  the  work  of  men  who  seem  unskilful 
or  negligent. 

The  regular  routine  of  a  tour  around  the  outside  of  the  build- 
ing, followed  by  one  inside,  and  an  examination  of  the  new 
materials,  first  inside  and  then  outside,  should  still  be  kept  up,  but 
the  inspection  should  take  place  at  the  level  of  the  staging  where 
the  men  are  at  work.  The  steel  rod  may  occasionally  be  used  to 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  73 

examine  the  workmanship  of  new  men,  and  a  continual  watch  must 
be  kept  to  see  that  the  ashlar  is  properly  and  sufficiently  anchored 
to  the  backing,  and  that  all  exposed  angles  or  projecting  parts  of 
the  stone-work,  as  corners  of  openings,  string-courses,  sills  and 
cornices,  are  well  covered  up  with  boards,  to  protect  them  from 
accidental  blows,  and  from  falling  objects. 

Before  the  walls  reach  the  top,  it  is  necessary,  whether  the 
specifications  mention  it  or  not,  to  build  in  long  bolts  at  every 
angle,  and  at  intervals  of  about  ten  feet  along  the 
walls,  to  hold  the  wooden  wall-plate.  The  bolts 
should  be  of  one-inch  round  iron,  three  or  four  feet 
long,  with  a  short  plate  at  the  lower  end  to  give  them  secure  hold, 
built  in  vertically,  so  that  the  upper  end,  threaded  for  a  nut,  may 
project  an  inch  at  least  above  the  top  of  the  wall-plate  when  laid. 
In  setting  this,  holes  are  bored  for  the  bolts,  and  nuts  with  large 
washers  are  put  on  and  screwed  down  firmly. 

The  setting  of  the  cornice  and  coping  stones  must  be  watched 
anxiously.  It  is  customary  to  specify  that  all  cornice  or  other 
projecting  stones  shall  balance  on  the  wall,  or  in  other 
words,  that  the  weight  of  the  portion  of  the  stone  on  stones6" 
the  wall  shall  exceed  that  of  the  projecting  part,  by 
one-fourth,  one-half,  or  more,  as  the  case  may  be.  Whether 
specified  or  not,  a  considerable  excess  of  weight  on  the  wall  is 
necessary  to  a  good  job  of  stone-work.  Heavy  cornice-stones  are 
often  seen,  where  the  vigilance  of  an  inspector  is  wanting,  which 
would  fall  immediately  into  the  street  if  they  were  not  held  back 
by  thin  iron  straps  to  the  timbers  of  the  roof,  and  do  so  fall  when 
the  straps  rust,  or  the  timbers  are  burnt  away.  x 

Copings  must  also  be  strongly  secured  against  sliding  off.    The 
"kneelers"  or  corbels  at  the  foot  of  the  slope,  which  ostensibly 
support  them,  are  seldom  so  designed  as  to  be  capable 
of  anything  more  than  holding  themselves  in  place, 
and  usually  require  even  for  that  to  be  anchored  back  tcrthe  ma- 
sonry, so  that  the  coping-stones  must  be  held  by  irons  at  the  foot  of 
each.     Finials  also,   which   commonly   decorate  the 
peaks  of  gables,  are  not  secure  unless  dowelled  to  the 
adjacent  stones,  and  if  composed  of  several  pieces  should  be  drilled 
completely  through,  and  strung  upon  a  long  iron  rod  previously 


74  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

built  into  the  masonry,  with  nut  and  washer  at  the  top  to  hold  the 
joints  firmly  together. 

The  young  superintendent  will  hardly  see  the  finials  placed  on 
his  building  without  having  undergone  several  conflicts  with  the 
contractor  as  to  the  stones  which  are  to  be  permitted 
stones'*  m  t^ie  work-  He  may  find  his  orders  about  seams 
and  sand-holes  cheerfully  complied  with,  but  stones 
accidentally  broken  after  cutting  will  be  used  wherever  they  can 
.escape  his  eye;  the  fractured  portions,  if  conspicuous,  being  neatly 
cut  out,  and  a  new  piece  inserted  and  glued  in  with  melted  shellac. 
In  dry  weather,  and  while  still  fresh  from  the  tool,  such  patches 
are  hardly  noticeable  unless  near  the  eye,  and  they  should  therefore 
be  looked  for  from  the  stagings  before  these  are  shifted ;  but  when 
the  stone  is  wet  by  rain,  the  inserted  piece  becomes  painfully  con- 
spicuous, and  as  the  shellac  is  slowly  destroyed  between  the  stones, 
the  joint  becomes  more  and  more  evident,  and  the  piece  may  even 
drop  out  if  situated,  as  sometimes  occurs,  on  the  under  side  of  a 
lintel. 

Both  firmness  and  consideration  are  necessary  in  dealing  with 
these  cases.  While  a  patched  jamb-stone,  sill  or  lintel,  unless  of 
extraordinary  size,  is  inexcusable,  it  would  be  harsh  to  condemn  a 
piece  of  rich  and  costly  carving  for  a  small  mutilation  which  could 
be  easily  concealed ;  and  some  fractures  may  occur  after  the  stone- 
work is  completed  which  can  only  be  repaired  by  patching  in  this 
way. 

The  walls  are  by  this  time  ready  for  the  roof,  and  the  tower 
has  been  carried  up  to  the  same  height.  The  contractor,  anxious 
to  save  all  the  time  possible,  is  still  at  work  on  this,  although  the 
Mason-work  season  'ls  gating  late,  and  the  nights  frosty.  One 
in  Freezing  unusually  cold  morning  we  arrive  on  the  ground,  and 
Weather  £n(j  ^  mortar  ]eft  Over  from  the  previous  evening 
frozen  hard  in  the  tubs.  Trying  one  of  the  small  stones  in  the 
backing  laid  the  day  before,  we  find  that  instead  of  adhering  to  the 
mortar,  and  bringing  away  some  lumps  clinging  to  it,  the  stone 
separates  easily,  and  comes  away  clean,  while  its  surface,  as  well 
as  that  of  the  mortar  in  which  it  lay,  is  covered  with  hoar  frost. 

This  is  a  plain  indication  that  the  mason-work  must  be  sus- 
pended until  the  settled  warm  weather  of  spring.  The  film  of 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  75 

frost  which  penetrates  in  cold  weather  between  the  mortar  and  the 
stones  forms  a  complete  separation,  and  adherence  does  not  take 
place  again  after  the  ice  is  thawed,  while  the  mortar  is  itself  also 
more  or  less  disintegrated  by  freezing.  Mortar  of  pure  lime,  if 
frozen  in  the  tubs,  may  be  warmed  and  worked  over  so  as  to  be 
used,  but  cement,  if  its  first  set  is  once  broken  up,  either  by  freez- 
ing or  by  unnecessary  stirring,  will  never  harden  again. 

The  foreman,  mindful  of  his  master's  interests,  resists  the 
order  to  cover  up  the  walls,  relating  anecdotes  of  structures  built 
without  harm  in  the  midst  of  terrible  frosts,  and  urging  at  great 
length  the  well-known  superiority  of  a  "frozen  set"  over  all  others ; 
but  he  should  be  overruled.  If  any  error  is  commit- 
ted, it  should  be  on  the  side  of  safety.  It  is  true  that 
plastering,  of  pure  lime  only,  if  frozen  at  the  beginning  of  the 
season,  and  kept  constantly  frozen  for  some  months,  acquires  at 
the  end  of  that  time  a  considerable  hardness,  which  is  not  lost  on 
thawing ;  while  if  thawed  within  a  few  days  or  weeks  after  freez- 
ing, it  disintegrates  and  crumbles ;  but  in  this  there  is  no  question 
of  the  separation  between  the  stones  or  bricks  and  the  mortar  of 
a  piece  of  masonry,  which  takes  place  without  regard  to  the  dura- 
tion of  the  freezing,  and  constitutes  the  chief  danger,  and  more- 
over a  "frozen  set"  is  hazardous  with  mortar  containing  cement 
or  hydraulic  lime. 

The  tower  walls  are  therefore  covered  with  a  roof  of  boards, 
and  the  masons  sent  to  cut  stone  for  the  spire,  or  employed  in 
building  the  basement  piers,  and,  as  soon  as  the  main  roof  is  on, 
the  lining  walls  in  the  society-room  and  vestibule. 

The  design  for  roof  trusses  should  have  been  anxiously  criti- 
cised by  the  superintendent,   in  order  to   detect  and 
remedy  the  weaknesses,  if  any  exist,  before  they  cause 
loss  and  discredit  through  the  failure  of  the  executed  structure. 

If  all  is  found  satisfactory,  the  details  are  committed  to  the 
framer,  who  will  probably  need  and  ask  for  advice  concerning  the 
various  joints,  tenons,  bolts  and  straps,  so  that  the  young  architect 
will  do  well  to  refresh  his  knowledge  on  these  points  both  from 
his  text-books  and  such  examples  as  he  can  reach.  The  accuracy 
of  the  curves,  the  neatness*  of  the  chamfers,  the  sufficiency  of  the 
bolts,  should  all  be  noted,  as  well  as  the  correctness  of  position  on 


76  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

the  walls,  and  the  alignment  of  the  purlins.  The  rafters  once  on, 
the  covering-in  commences  immediately,  and  after  inspecting  the 
quality  of  the  boards,  which  should  be  planed  on  one  side,  smooth, 
straight-edged  and  free  from  loose  knots,  if  slate  are  to  be  laid 
over  them,  it  will  become  necessary  to  decide  as  to  the  best  way 
of  working  the  flashings  and  gutters.  For  the  former,  there  will 
be  not  only  the  valleys,  but  the  intersections  of  the  roof 
with  the  back  of  the  gable  walls,  the  tower,  and  two 
chimneys,  which  must  be  protected  against  the  entrance  of  water. 
The  specification  requires  "all  necessary  flashings"  to  be  put  on 
"in  the  best  manner,"  carelessly  omitting  further  details.  Even 
the  material  which  shall  be  used  is  not  specified,  and  the  superin- 
tendent wisely  resolves  to  come  to  an  understanding  with  the  con- 
tractor beforehand,  and  thus  avoid  the  possibility  of  having  to 
reject  work  after  it  has  been  put  up. 

Unquestionably,  the  "best"  material  for  flashings  \s  copper, 
which  is  indestructible  by  weather,  is  so  tenacious  as  not  to  crack 
like  lead  or  zinc  when  bent  at  a  sharp  angle,  and  so  stiff  that  after 
bending  it  cannot  be,  like  lead,  blown  up  by  a  strong  wind.  Nev- 
ertheless, copper  flashings  are  costly,  and  little  employed,  so  that 
it  would  be  unjust  to  require  a  contractor  to  use  them  under  the 
circumstances,  and  we  must  content  ourselves  with  lead  and  zinc. 
The  latter  metal  will  constitute  the  whole  of  the  valley  and  hip 
flashings,  and  two  ways  of  arranging  these  are  permissible;  the 
best  practice  of  various  localities  inclining  about  as  much  to  one 
as  the  other.  Often  the  two  systems  are  mixed,  and  the  valleys 
laid  by  one,  and  the  hips  by  the  other,  or  vice  versa. 

By  the  first  method,  which  is  perhaps  most  popular  in  the  large 
cities,  the  valleys  are  covered  with  a  long  strip  of  zinc,  fifteen  or 
sixteen  inches  wide,  laid  the  whole  length  of  the  angle,  and  sold- 
ered together  at  the  joints  (Fig.  56).  This  is  tacked  at  the 
edges,  and  the  slates  laid  so  as  to  lap  over  it  on  each  side.  If  the 
metal  were  not  subject  to  expansion  by  heat,  this  would  perhaps 
be  the  best  way ;  but  the  long  strips  lengthen  very  sensibly  under 
a  summer's  sun,  to  contract  again  in  winter,  and  the  ultimate 
effect  often  is  to  tear  them  at  some  point,  making  a  bad  leak.  The 
same  method  applied  to  flashing  against  a  wall  consists  in  covering 
the  joint  by  a  long  strip,  one  edge  of  which  is  bent  over,  and 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


77 


tucked  into  a  reglet,  groove  or  "raggle"  cut  in  the  stone  or  brick 
work  of  the  wall  six  inches  or  more  above  the  slope  of  the  roof, 
and  parallel  with  it.  The  efficiency  of  this  depends  on  the  care 
with  which  it  is  done.  The  effect  of  alternate  heat  and  cold  on 
such  a  flashing  is  to  warp  it  until  it  springs  out  from  the  "raggle" 
either  at  one  end  or  in  the  middle,  letting  a  stream  of  water  run 
down  into  the  rooms  below  (Fig.  57),  and  this  can  only  be  pre- 
vented by  cutting  the  groove  quite  deep,  an  inch  or  so,  instead  of 
the  half-inch  which  is  common,  turning  in  the  flashing  to  the  very 
bottom  of  the  groove,  and  wedging  it  firmly 
in  with  slate  chips  and  cement.  The  wooden 
chips  generally  used  for  the  purpose  soon 


Fig.  57 


Fig.  56 

shrink  and  become  loose. 

Hips  are  covered  with  strips  by  putting 
a  wooden  "hip  roll"  on  the  boarding  and 


Fig.  58 


laying  the  slates  close  up  to  it,  subsequently  tacking  on  the  metal, 
fitting  it  closely  around  the  roll,  and  letting  it  extend  on  each  side 
three  or  four  inches  over  the  slates  (Fig.  58). 

The  essence  of  the  rival  method  consists  in  its  employment  of 
small  pieces  of  metal  lapped  over  each  other,  with- 
out soldered  joints,  so  that  they  can  expand  and  con-  £ |asj^nfl  with 
-  T      r  ;.  Small  Pieces 

tract  freely.     In  forming  valleys  by  this  mode  a 

sufficient  number  of  trapezoidal  pieces  of  zinc  or  other  metal  are 
cut  out  (Fig.  59),  in  length  equal  to  one  of  the  slates  used,  and  in 
width  varying  from  about  ten  inches  at  one  end  to  fifteen  or  more 
at  the  other,  according  to  the  pitch  of  the  roof.  These  pieces  are 
taken  on  the  roof  by  the  slater  and  "slated  in,"  each  forming  a 
part  of  the  two  courses  of  slate  corresponding  on  each  side  of  the 
angle  (Fig.  60),  and  each  being  laid  over  the  course  of  slates  next 
below  it,  while  the  slates  themselves  are  laid  more  closely  into  the 
angle  of  the  valley  than  when  the  other  system  is  employed. 
Although  more  metal  is  used  in  this  way,  the  labor  is  less,  and 
the  work  on  the  whole  more  satisfactory,  because  more  permanent. 


78  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

In  its  application  to  the  flashing  of  walls  and  chimneys  there  is 
less  to  be  said  in  favor  of  it,  compared  with  a  first-class  job  in  the 
other  style.  In  the  "stepped  flashing,"  as  it  is  called,  composed 

of  small  pieces,  no  groove  is  cut  in  the  masonry,  but 
plash  tag  short  lengths  of  the  horizontal  mortar  joints  are  raked 

out,  and  pieces  of  metal  are  cemented  in,  one  above 
another,  lapping  over  each  other  like  a  flight  of  steps.  This  is 
much  more  permanent  than  a  single  strip,  especially  if  the  pieces, 

instead    of   being    inserted    in    a 

raked-out  joint,  are  built  into  the 

masonry  itself,  as  is  often  done; 

but  in  exposed  situations  the  wind 

and  rain  are  likely  to  blow  into  the 

vertical  crevices  which  are  left  be- 
tween the  masonry  and  the  metal 
Fig  t?o        when  this  is  folded  down  against 


Fig.  60 


it,  so  that  elastic  cement,  or  a  stopping  of  "paint 
skins"  and  fine  sand  are  necessary  to  make  them  tight. 

The  principle  of  subdivided  flashings  is  applied  to  hips  by 
slating  in  pieces  of  metal,  the  slates  then  being  laid  out  to  the  very 
edge.  This  is  both  tighter  and  neater  in  appearance  than  the 
hip  roll  with  its  spreading  sides. 

After  a  discussion  with  the  roofer  on  all  these  points,  we 
decide  that  the  hips  and  valleys  shall  have  flashings  slated  in,  but 
that  ordinary  flashings  in  long  strips  shall  be  used  where  the  roof 
comes  against  masonry.  The  stone-work  is  in  places  so  rough 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  turn  down  a  sheet  of  stepped  flash- 
ing against  it  so  closely  as  to  be  tight,  and  the  other  mode  seems 
preferable,  but  we  enjoin  upon  the  roofer  the  greatest  care  in 
securing  the  strips  into  the  grooves. 

As  for  the  metal  of  the  flashings,  we  insist  that  those  on  walls 
and  chimneys  shall  be  "capped,"  and  that  the  capping 

F?aPsPheings       sha11  be  of  three  and  one-half  pound  lead.     All  the 

rest  we  direct  to  be  of  eleven  ounce  zinc. 
The  contractor  demurs  somewhat  to  capping  the  long  flash- 
ings, but  the  superintendent  persists,  and  the  roofer,  on  being 
closely  questioned,  finally  acknowledges  that  they  cannot  in  any 
other  way  be  made  reasonably  permanent,  and  as  the  contract 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


79 


requires  that  the  tightness  of  the  roof  shall  be  guaranteed  for  two 
years,  he  at  length,  influenced  by  the  instinct  of  self-protection, 
yields. 

This  capping  is  the  best  safeguard  against  the  evil  effects  of 
expansion  on  long  flashings,  and  consists  in  making  them  in  a 
certain  sense  double ;  one  strip  of  zinc  covering  the  roof,  and  being 
turned  up  against  the  masonry,  almost  to  the  line  of  the  "raggle," 
or  groove,  with  a  few  nails  to  keep  it  in  place,  while  a  second  strip 
of  lead,  thin  enough  to  be  easily  dressed  close  against  the  wall,  is 
cemented  into  the  "raggle"  just  above  the  upper  edge  of  the  zinc 
strip,  and  turned  down  over  it,  reaching  to  a  line  an  inch  above  the 
surface  of  the  roof,  so  that  the  two  pieces  of  metal  can  expand  and 
contract  independently  without  finally  opening  a  joint.  It  must 
not  approach  nearer  than  an  inch ;  if  it  does,  it  may  dip  into  a  cur- 
rent of  water  or  melted  snow  flowing  down  the  roof,  and  the 
capillary  attraction  between  the  two  metal  surfaces  will  draw 
moisture  up,  and  over  the  edge  of  the  inner  strip,  to  find  its  way 
into  the  rooms  below. 

The  mason,  who  is  all  ready  to  cut  the  reglets,  asks  us  whether 
he  shall  make  those  on  the  rear  of  the  copings  by  raking  out  the 
joint  between  them  and  the  masonry  below,  or 
shall  cut  them  in  the  coping  itself.  There  is 
some  advantage  in  protecting  the  bed  of  the 
coping,  so,  although  we  are  sorry  that  we  did 
not  think  in  time  to  have  the  leaden  strips  laid 
into  the  mortar  before  setting  the  coping,  which 
would  have  made  an  admirable  arrangement, 
we  order  the  grooves  to  be  cut  two  inches  above 
the  bed  joint  of  the  coping ;  to  be  at  least  one 
inch  deep,  and  Portland  cement  to  be  provided, 
ready  mixed,  for  setting  the  lead  into  its  place. 

The  gutters  must  next  be  attended  to,  al- 
though the  specification,  in  calling  for  "gutters 
of  No.  24  galvanized-iron,  as  per  detail  draw- 
ing (Fig.  61),  running  up  16  inches  under 
slates,  and  to  have  front  edge  turned  over  a  % 
inch  by  ^  inch  wrought-iron  bar,  with  galvanized  wrought-iron 
braces  every  24  inches,  running  up  two  feet  under  slates,  and  strip 


Fig.  61 


go  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

of  four-pound  lead  one  inch  wide  soldered  on  under  side  to  cover 
edge  of  stone  cornice,"  has  relieved  us  of  the  severest  responsibil- 
ity. But,  as  usual,  nothing  on  the  drawings  indicates 
the  position  of  the  six  "galvanized^iron  conductors" 
which  the  specification  demands,  and  consequently,  the  direction  in 
which  the  gutters  shall  incline  must  be  determined  by  the  superin- 
tendent, according  to  his  best  judgment.  The  task  is  not  difficult, 
and  the  gutter,  which  is  already  on  the  ground,  having  been  exam- 
ined and  found  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  detailed  section,  well 
formed  and  straight,  is  passed,  and  immediately  hoisted  to  the 
roof  for  putting  in  place. 

Meanwhile,  we  descend  to  the  basement,  to  inspect  the  con- 
struction of  the  piers  and  the  setting  of  the  iron  column  in  the 
society-room.  Hardly  have  we  turned  our  steps  in  that  direction 
when,  as  we  try  to  call  to  mind  the  basement  plan,  a  misgiving 
seizes  us,  which  is  increased  as  the  foreman  mason  comes  out  to 
meet  us,  and  jerking  his  thumb  in  the  direction  of  the  society- 
room  begins,  "About  that  ar  column, — do  you  think  one  is  enough 
to  hold  that  floor?"  We  make  no  direct  answer,  preferring  to 
wait  until  we  can  understand  all  the  circumstances,  which  prove 
to  be  anything  but  reassuring.  The  total  length  of  the  girder  in 
the  ceiling  of  the  society-room,  from  the  brick  wall  which  stands 
under  the  chancel  steps  to  the  east  wall,  measures  forty  feet,  and 
the  column  is  indicated  on  the  plan  as  standing  under  its  centre. 
The  clear  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  pillar  to  the  wall  in  each 
direction  is  therefore  twenty  feet,  spanned  by  a  single  12"  X  16" 
hard-pine  timber.  The  floor-beams  are  all  in  place,  but  the  shores 
set  up  at  random  under  the  girder  to  support  it  while  the  piers 
were  being  built  have  not  yet  been  removed,  so  we  are  unable  to 
judge  by  the  deflection  of  the  sticks  whether  they  are  overloaded 
or  not.  It  is,  however,  very  easy  to  determine  this 
point  by  calculation.  The  girder  F  X  (Fig.  62)  car- 
rying  the  western  part  of  the  society-room  ceiling  is 
the  most  strained,  since  it  bears  one-half  the  weight  of  the  rect- 
angular portion  A  C  B  D  of  the  chancel  floor,  while  the  girder 
X  E  carries  only  one-half  the  semi-circle  C  E  D,  whose  area  is  but 
about  four-fifths  that  of  a  rectangle  of  equal  length  and  breadth, 
and  we  will  therefore  make  our  estimates  for  the  timber  F  X,  sure 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


8l 


that  if  this  is  strong  enough  for  its  purpose,  the  one  at  X  E  will  be 
more  than  sufficient.  The  distance  F  E  being  40  feet,  and  the 
width  of  the  cap  of  the  column  at  X,  8  inches,  being  deducted 
from  the  total  clear  span  of  the  two  girders,  leaves  19  feet  8  inches 
as  the  length  of  each  between  bearings.  The  distance  A  B  is 
39^  feet,  so  that  the  total  floor  area  bearing  on  F  X  is  equal  to 
19^3  X  39/3  =  387squarefeet. 

The  chancel  floor  is  to  be  tiled,  and  the  weight  of  the  floor,  includ- 
ing beams  and  boarding,  brick  foundation  and  tiles,  may  be  taken 
at  seventy-one  pounds  per  square  foot,  and  that  of  the  plastering 
on  the  under  side  at  ten  pounds  more,  making  eighty-one  pounds. 
Besides  this  load,  the  supporting  timber  must  be  calculated  to 
bear  safely  the  weight  of  any 
probable  crowd  of  persons  upon 
it.  By  the  New  York  building 
law,  the  load  which  must  be 
assumed  as  thus  liable  to  be 
brought  upon  the  floor  of  a 
place  of  public  assembly  is  esti- 
mated at  one  hundred  and 
twenty  pounds  per  square  foot, 
independent  of  the  weight  of 
the  structure  itself,  and  though 
this  is  probably  rather  a  high 
estimate  of  the  weight  of  a 
compact  crowd,  we  shall  do  best 
to  adopt  it  as  a  standard.  Our  chancel  floor  must  then  be  reck- 
oned at  81  +  120  =  201  pounds  per  square  foot,  and  as  the  girder 
supports  387  square  feet,  the  load  will  be  387X201  =  77,787 
pounds,  equally  distributed  by  the  beams  over  the  whole  length  of 
the  girder.  To  this  must  be  added  the  weight  of  the  girder  itself, 
which,  at  forty-five  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  will  be  1,180  pounds, 
making  a  total  of  78,967  pounds.  This  weight,  multiplied  by  the 
clear  length  of  the  girder  in  inches,  and  divided  by  8,  will  give  the 
bending  moment  at  the  middle  of  the  girder;  that  is: 


g2  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

To  resist  this  bending  moment  we  have  the  moment  of  resist- 
ance, r,  of  a  beam  12  inches  in  breadth,  and  16  inches  deep.  For 
beams  of  rectangular  section,  like  the  present  one,  the  moment  of 
resistance  is  one-sixth  of  the  product  of  the  breadth  by  the  square 
of  the  depth,  or 


To  find  the  actual  resistance,  the  moment  of  resistance,  r,  must 
be  multiplied  by  the  maximum  permissible  fibre  stress,  which,  for 
Georgia  pine,  is  1,250  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  This  gives  us 
512  X  1*250  —  640,000,  as  the  utmost  resistance  which  the  girder 
can  safely  oppose  to  a  bending  moment  which  we  have  ascertained 
to  be,  under  the  full  load,  2,329,526.  Obviously,  then,  the  girder 
is  less  than  one-third  as  strong  as  it  should  be,  in  order  to  meet 
without  danger  the  contingency  of  a  crowd  collecting  in  the  chan- 
cel, and  there  is  a  very  evident  necessity  for  doing  something  to 
strengthen  it.  What  steps  should  be  taken  is  a  matter  for  the 
architect  to  decide,  and  we  notify  him  at  once.  There  are  several 
methods  to  choose  from.  Additional  columns  can  be  interposed 
between  the  central  column  and  the  walls;  or  the  girders  can  be 
replaced  by  stronger  ones,  leaving  the  single  column  in  the  centre  ; 
or  additional  rows  of  girders  can  be  put  in,  each  supported  by 
columns.  The  cheapest  plan  would  be  to  put  in  two  additional 
columns,  dividing  the  total  length  of  the  girder  into  four  spans, 
instead  of  two;  but  the  architect  probably  had  some  reason  for 
preferring  a  single  column.  While  awaiting  his  reply  we  will 
inspect  the  brick  piers  which  support  the  girders  in  the  main 

cellar.     Of  these  there  are  rather  more  than  is  neces- 
Brick  Piers  .        -         .  ,  ,          .      .. 

sary,  the  plan  showing  them  spaced  but  six  feet  apart 

from  centres.  A  few  only  have  been  built,  of  well-formed  hard 
brick,  twelve  inches  square,  as  the  plan  shows,  but  with  joints  of 
a  suspicious  gray-blue  color,  instead  of  brown.  They  have  been 
completed  some  three  days,  but  we  find  that  a  knife-blade  easily 
penetrates  the  mortar  after  the  outer  crust  is  pierced.  Calling  the 
mason,  we  ask  him  if  the  piers  were  laid  in  sand  and  cement,  only, 
without  lime,  as  the  specification  required.  He  answers  with  con- 
siderable hesitation  that  "a  little  lime  might  perhaps  have  been  put 
in,  but  it  is  mostly  cement."  Our  suspicions  are  not  allayed,  and 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  83 

we  ask  to  see  the  cask  from  which  the  cement  was  taken,  and  to 
have  the  mortar  mixer  brought  before  us.  The  foreman  is  about 
to  disappear  in  search  of  these  witnesses,  but  we  detain  him  and 
send  a  boy  in  his  stead,  who  does  not  return ;  and  after  a  good  deal 
of  writhing  our  captive  confesses,  being  confronted  with  the  soft 
mortar,  that  there  was  no  cement  on  the  ground  at  the  time,  and 
he  had  had  the  piers  built  with  the  best  mortar  he  could  possibly 
make  with  the  materials  at  hand. 

"What  did  you  color  the  mortar  with,  to  make  it  so  dark?" 
we  ask;  and  the  foreman  replies,  "Well,  we  didn't  suppose  you 
would  know  the  difference,  so  we  sent  over  to  the  grocery  store, 
and  got  some  lampblack,  and  mixed  it  in." 

We  impress  upon  his  mind  our  objection  to  such  tricks  by 
ordering  all  the  piers  demolished  in  our  presence,  and  dismiss  him 
with  an  admonition. 

The  architect  is  at  a  distance,  and  before  his  answer  about  the 
girders  arrives  we  have  an  opportunity  to  inspect  the  roofing 
work  again.  The  gutters  are  on  and  properly  braced,  the  flash- 
ings finished  behind  one  gable,  and  far  advanced  on  another,  and 
slating  has  begun.  The  slates  have  but  just  arrived, 
and  we  stop  to  inspect  them.  The  specification  de- 
scribes them  only  as  "good  black  slate,"  but  in  the  lot  delivered, 
and  stacked  near  the  hoisting  tackle,  we  observe  several  different 
varieties.  Some  are  thin,  but  with  a  beautifully  smooth,  shining 
surface,  and  very  black :  these  are  from  Pennsylvania,  and  are  of 
excellent  quality ;  others  from  Maine  are  split  a  little  thicker,  and 
are  also  smooth  and  shining,  but  with  a  grayish  lustre,  like  black 
lead ;  others  again  are  thick,  with  a  dead  look,  and  crumble  at  the 
edges  on  being  strongly  pinched.  We  take  one  of  the  last-men- 
tioned kind,  and  set  it  up  on  edge  in  a  pail  of  water,  leaving  it  a 
few  minutes,  when  the  moisture  is  seen  to  rise  in  the  substance  of 
the  stone  half  an  inch  or  more  above  the  surface  of  the  water. 
This  slate  is  therefore  absorbent  and  bad,  and  must  be  wholly 
rejected,  while,  as  it  would  give  a  ragged  look  to  see  two  kinds 
used  together  on  a  roof,  we  summon  the  contractor  and  request 
him  to  choose  between  the  Maine  or  the  Pennsylvania  slate,  either 
of  which  will  be  acceptable,  and  send  away  all  others. 

Ascending  now  to  the  roof,  we  reach  the  gable  wall,  behind 


84  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

which  the  roofer  is  inserting  his  flashings.  As  we  approach  he 
hastily  bundles  together  a  quantity  of  pieces  of  zinc  and  throws 
them  behind  him,  but  the  appearance  of  the  work  gives  no  cause 
for  suspecting  anything  wrong.  The  lead  is  smoothly  turned  into 
its  reglet,  and  the  groove  filled  with  cement ;  the  soldering  is  well 
done,  and  the  lower  edge  at  the  proper  distance  from  the  roof,  and 
all  closely  dressed  down  to  the  stone-work.  We  take  a  conven- 
ient stick,  and  turn  up  the  edge  of  the  lead  cap  far  enough  to  be 
able  to  inspect  the  flashing  beneath.  Instead  of  extending  up  the 
wall  to  within  half  an  inch  or  less  of  the  reglet  in  which  the  cap- 
ping is  inserted,  it  is  turned  up  only  about  an  inch  and  a  half,  so 
that  the  cap  just  covers  the  edge. 

Turning  to  the  abashed  roofer  for  an  explanation,  he  says  that 
he  saw  no  necessity  for  turning  flashings  up  eight  inches,  which 
would  be  the  distance  between  the  roof  surface  and  the  reglet: 
that  two  inches  was  enough  for  any  one,  etc.  We  do  not  stop  to 
argue  the  question,  but  simply  direct  the  cap  to  be  turned  up 
throughout  its  length,  the  under  flashing  to  be  replaced  in  accord- 
ance with  the  orders  first  given,  and  the  whole  left  exposed  for  a 
second  inspection  before  the  lead  cap  is  turned  down  again  into 
its  place.  Taking  the  roofer  with  us,  we  make  our  way  to  the 
other  gable,  where  both  upper  and  under  flashing  prove  of  the 
requisite  width,  but  the  lead,  instead  of  being  cemented  into  the 
groove,  is  wedged  in  with  slips  of  wood.  We  have  these  replaced 
with  slate  chips,  and  the  grooves  filled  with  fresh  cement;  then 
look  to  see  if  the  tarred  felt  which  is  being  spread  over  the  roof 
under  the  slate  is  flexible,  and  the  rolls  perfect,  instead  of  being, 
as  sometimes  happens,  full  of  holes  and  flaws,  and  the  material 
itself  brittle  and  rotten.  A  glance  is  sufficient  to  satisfy  us  in 
these  respects,  and  our  duties  are  over  for  the  day. 

A  letter  received  from  the  architect  before  our  next  visit  ex- 
plains the  unfortunate  oversight  in  relation  to  the  girders  in  the 
ceiling  of  the  society-room.  It  seems  that  three  columns  had 
been  indicated  in  this  room  to  support  the  line  of  girders,  dividing 
the  length  into  four  spans,  for  which  the  timber  would  have  been 
sufficiently  strong,  and  the  estimate  had  been  made  including  this 
arrangement,  and  the  contract  signed  in  accordance  with  it.  Im- 
mediately after  the  signing  of  the  contract,  however,  the  rector 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  85 

of  the  church  had  represented  to  the  architect  the  inconvenience 
which  would  be  caused  by  the  row  of  pillars  through  the  middle 
of  a  room  devoted  to  so  many  uses,  and  had  engaged  him  to  re- 
duce the  supports  to  a  single  central  column,  strengthening  the 
girders  sufficiently  to  compensate  for  the  increase  in  their  length. 
As  time  pressed,  the  architect  had  hastily  erased  two  of  the  col- 
umns from  the  tracing  of  the  basement  plan  sent  to  the  contractor 
for  commencing  operations,  leaving  only  the  single  central  one, 
fearing  that  any  delay  might  cause  useless  foundations  to  be  put 
in  for  the  pillars  first  shown,  and  intending  to  arrange  for  the 
substitution  of  iron  beams,  or  girders  strengthened  in  some  other 
way,  for  those  specified;  but  this  had  slipped  his  mind  until  he 
received  our  letter.  As  a  considerable  saving  in  cost  was  effected 
by  omitting  the  two  iron  columns,  a  corresponding  allowance 
would  have  to  be  made  from  the  contract  price,  to  be  offset  against 
the  extra  cost  of  strengthening  the  girders.  Just  how  this  should 
be  effected  he  did  not  wish  to  dictate  positively.  His  own  idea 
had  been  to  substitute  two  rolled-iron  beams,  placed  side  by  side 
and  bolted  together,  for  each  of  the  wooden  girders,  but  this 
would  be  expensive,  and  although  he  was  not  restricted  as  to  the 
cost  of  making  the  change  desired  by  the  rector,  he  would  like  to 
save  the  church  all  needless  expense,  and  if  we  could  devise  any 
cheaper  mode  of  trussing  the  present  girders,  or  otherwise  sup- 
porting the  floor,  he  would  leave  the  matter  wholly  to  our  judg- 
ment, in  which  he  had  great  confidence.  The  girders,  he  would 
remind  us,  were  intended  in  any  case  to  be  plastered  over.1 

iThe  writer  feels  as  if  he  owed  an  apology  to  his  imaginary  architect  for 
exhibiting  him  as  guilty  of  so  many  mistakes  and  oversights,  but  he  is  anxious 
to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  his  readers  the  lesson  that  an  efficient  super- 
intendent should  be  able  to  criticise  and  correct  in  good  time,  if  necessary,  the 
work  of  the  architect,  and  to  act  in  his  stead  upon  occasion.  His  ability  to 
do  so  will  not  be  likely  to  make  him  over-forward  in  thrusting  himself  into 
the  other's  place,  while  it  may  save  the  latter  infinite  trouble  and  anxiety.  For 
this  reason  the  author  represents  the  architect  as  careless  and  ignorant,  solely 
for  the  purpose  of  showing  how  a  good  superintendent  can  bring  him  out  of 
his  errors  with  credit ;  or,  if  both  offices  are  combined  in  one  person,  how  the 
architect  can  extricate  himself  from  them.  It  must  be  remembered  that  our 
hero,  whatever  he  may  be  called,  can  only  give  proof  of  his  varied  ability  by 
being  furnished  with  occasions  for  exhibiting  it. 


86  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

In  accordance  with  the  instructions  contained  in  the  letter,  we 
set  ourselves  to  devise,  if  possible,  an  inexpensive  mode  of  truss- 
ing the  girders  to  which  it  relates,  and  thereby  fulfil  the  architect's 
wish  by  saving  the  cost  of  iron  beams,  which  happen  to  be  at  this 
time  particularly  expensive.  The  present  girders  have  been  proved 
to  possess  less  than  one-third  the  requisite  strength.  The  most 
natural  way  to  increase  this  would  be  to  add  other  timbers  beside 
the  original  ones.  If  four  girders  of  equal  size  with  the  one  we 
have  were  placed  side  by  side,  and  all  bolted  together,  so  that  any 
burden  on  one  would  be  resisted  by  the  combined  strength  of  the 
four,  the  problem  would  be  solved,  but  in  a  very  awkward  man- 
ner, since  the  cap  of  the  single  column  would  have  to  be  danger- 
ously extended  in  order  to  support  the  ends  of  all  the  girders. 

Perhaps  this  might  be  obviated  in  another  way.  Recurring 
to  the  formula  for  the  resistance  of  beams  of  rectangular  section, 
we  notice  that  while  the  resistance  increases  directly  as  the  breadth 
of  the  beam,  it  is  augmented  in  proportion  to  the  square  of  its 
depth,  so  that  although  a  single  beam  of  four  times  the  strength 
of  our  girder,  and  of  the  same  depth,  would  need  to  be  four  times 
as  broad,  a  beam  equally  strong  would  be  formed  by  a  timber  of 
the  same  breadth,  but  of  only  twice  the  depth.  As  our  present 
girder  is  12  inches  broad  by  16  inches  deep,  a  stick  12  inches  by 
32  would  just  meet  our  wants. 

Unfortunately,  it  is  impracticable  to  procure  beams  of  such 
dimensions,  and  we  must  try  some  other  expedient.  It  would  be 
of  no  avail  to  put  a  second  12 X 16  girder  below  the  first;  each  of 
them  would  bend  independently  of  the  other,  and  their  united 
strength  would  be  that  of  two  beams  only,  instead  of  four.  Iron 
might  be  used  for  strengthening  the  wooden  sticks.  A  strip  of 
boiler-plate  sixteen  inches  wide,  and  half  an  inch  thick,  might  be 
bolted  on  each  side  of  the  girder;  but  the  objection  to  the  use  of 
iron  plates,  either  in  this  way,  or  as  flitch-plates,  bolted  between 
pairs  of  wooden  girders,  is  that  the  iron,  being  much  stiffer  than 
the  wood,  endures  nearly  all  the  strain,  the  resistance  of  the  tim- 
ber not  being  brought  into  action  until  the  iron  has  given  way; 
and,  in  the  present  case,  the  increase  in  strength  would  be  slight, 
and  the  cost  great.  Another  expedient,  which  is  frequently  em- 
ployed, although  its  value  is  disproportionate  to  the  expense,  con- 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  87 

sists  in  employing  iron  rods,  to  form  a  "belly-truss,"  (Fig.  63), 
the  strength  of  which  would  depend  mainly  on  the  depth  which 
could  be  given  to  it. 

This  would,  however,  cause  an  unsightly  projection  into  the 
room,  which  _  -  _  __,_ 

must  be  furred 
over  to  conceal  it, 
and  the  trussing,  Flg*  63 

though  cheaper  than  the  flitch-plates,  would  still  be  somewhat  costly. 

Reflecting  upon  all  these  devices,  it  occurs  to  us  that  if  a  sec- 
ond beam  similar  to  the  present  one  could  be  placed  below  it  and 
strongly  connected  with  it,  so  as  to  constitute  practically  one  tim- 
ber, the  desired  result  would  be  attained  in  a  form  extremely  com- 
pact and  simple.  Turning  to  some  text-books  which  we  have 
brought  with  us,  we  learn  that  this  can  to  a  limited  extent  be  ac- 
complished by  bolting  or  strapping  the  two  pieces  together,  and 
either  indenting  them  into  each  other  as  in  Fig.  64,  or  notching 
them  and  inserting  hard-wood  keys,  as  in  Fig.  65,  the  sole  object 
of  the  indentations  or  keys  being  to  prevent  the  slipping  of  the 
contiguous  surfaces  of  the  beams  upon  each  other,  so  that  in  order 
to  bend,  the  whole  of  the  lower  part  of  the  compound  beam  must 
be  stretched,  and  the  whole  of  the  upper  part  compressed,  just  as 
if  the  beam  were  in  one  piece  (Fig.  66),  instead  of  the  upper  and 
lower  halves  of  each  stick  undergoing  their  own  separate  com- 


T 

of          J 

L 

in 

^a      ' 

a,           a 

«*" 
1  

-4  — 

Figs.  64,  65 

pression  and  extension,  as  in  Fig.  67,  which  shows  the  action 
under  stress  of  beams  superposed,  but  not  keyed  together. 

The  books  inform  us  that  compound  beams  so  keyed  together 
and  tightly  bolted  are  nearly  equal  in  strength  to  a  solid  stick  of 
the  same  dimensions,  bearing  in  mind  that  the  depth  of  the  indents 
or  notches  for  keys  must  be  deducted  from  the  total  depth  of  the 
two  timbers  in  order  to  obtain  the  effective  depth  which  can 
alone  be  used  as  a  factor  in  calculating  the  strength. 


88 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


This  expedient  may  furnish  us  with  a  resource,  but  we  find 
on  careful  study  that  if  eight  keys  were  used,  which  would  be  a 
sufficient  number,  the  depth  of  each  would  have  to  be  within  a 
small  fraction  of  four  inches,  two  inches  being  cut  out  of  each 
timber ;  and  in  order  to  obtain  a  net  depth  of  32  inches,  which  is 
what  calculation  shows  to  be  necessary  for  the  strength  which  we 
require,  the  aggregate  depth  of  the  two  sticks  before  cutting  must 
be  36  inches.  Hence,  as  the  one  already  in  is  16  inches  deep,  the 
other  must  be  20  inches.  A  2O-inch  Georgia  pine  timber  happens 
in  this  place  to  be  difficult  to  obtain,  the  stock  sizes  running  only 


Figs.  66,  67 

to  1 6  inches;  so,  after  considering  this  objection,  we  are  induced 
to  search  for  some  still  further  means  of  so  combining  the  two 
beams  as  to  secure  the  whole  substance  of  the  lower  one  for  re- 
sisting tension,  and  of  the  upper  one  to  resist  compression,  the 
essential  requisite  for  enabling  the  compound  girder  to  act  as  a 
single  timber. 

Calling  to  mind  the  construction  of  certain  bridge  trusses,  in 
which  the  upper  chord  is  brought  completely  into  compression 
and  the  lower  one  into  tension  by  means  of  inclined  struts,  which 
resolve  the  downward  pressure  upon  them  into  a  push  with  their 
heads  in  one  direction,  and  with  their  feet  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, and,  being  arranged  so  that  half  of  them  point  one  way  and 
half  of  them  the  other,  mutually  act  to  compress  the  upper  and  to 
stretch  the  lower  chord  with  their  united  force  (Fig.  68),  we  re- 
flect that  if  similar  means  could  be  applied  to  two  superposed 
beams,  the  result  might  be  just  what  we  desire. 

The  action  of  the  oblique  struts  in  the  bridge  can  be  applied 
to  the  compound  beam  in  the  simplest  possible  way  by  nailing 
oblique  pieces  of  board  firmly  to  the  timbers,  reversing  them  on 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  89 

opposite  sides,  in  imitation  of  the  reversed  struts  in  the  bridge 
truss  (Fig.  69).  If  these  boards  are  i%  inches  thick,  their 
united  strength  will  be  greater  than  that  of  either  of  the  beams, 
and  if  well  nailed,  so  as  not  to  spring,  the  lower  beam  will  be  torn 
apart  before  they 
will  yield.  The 
nails,  if  long 
enough  to  pene- 
trate three  inches 
or  more  into  the 
girders,  can  only 


Fig.  68 


give  way  by  shearing,  which  would  require  a  force  greater  than 
would  be  necessary  to  break  a  solid  beam.  The  strength  of  a 
girder  built  up  in  this  way  will  not  be  affected  by  shrinkage,  which 
soon  causes  more  or  less  deflection  in  those  indented  or  keyed 
together;  for  its  resistance  is  maintained  by  the  board  struts, 
which  act  only  in  the  direction  of  their  length;  and  this  remains 
invariable  whatever  may  be  the  lateral  shrinkage. 

As  a  compound  beam  of  this  sort  is  a  novelty  in  construction, 
we  do  not  venture,  although  the  theory  appears  satisfactory,  to  apply 
it  to  the  important  case  before  us  without  testing  it  by  models.  Two 
or  three  of  these  are  quickly  made,  the  sticks  which  we  propose  to 
combine  into  one  being  accurately  cut  out  of  Georgia  pine,  each 
i  inch  wide,  by  iy2  inches  deep.  In  order  to  bring  the  breaking 
load  within  practicable  limits,  we  will  make  the  clear  span  of 
the  model  to  be  tested  10  feet,  and  cut  the  sticks  accordingly  n 
feet  long,  so  that  a  portion  will  be  left  projecting  at  each  end  over 


Fig.  69 

the  supports.  Small  sticks  of  any  timber  are,  in  proportion  to 
their  size,  far  stronger  than  large  ones,  and  we  find,  on  looking 
up  the  subject,  that  the  centre  breaking-load  of  a  solid  Georgia 
pine  beam  i  inch  wide,  3  inches  .deep,  and  10  feet  long  between 


£0  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

supports,  is  495  pounds.  That  of  two  sticks,  each  i  inch  by  i1/^ 
inches,  superposed,  but  not  connected,  would  be  247^  pounds. 
The  strength  of  our  model,  composed  of  two  such  sticks,  super- 
posed and  connected  in  the  way  we  propose,  cannot  possibly  ex- 
ceed that  of  a  solid  stick  of  the  same  depth,  but  may,  if  our  rea- 
soning is  correct,  approach  it.  We  therefore  prepare  our  model 
by  nailing  on  each  side  of  the  two  superposed  sticks  small  slips  of 
any  wood  at  hand,  about  ^-inch  thick,  set  at  an  angle  of  45°  with 
the  top  of  the  beam,  and  nail-ed  with  small  brads,  about  ^-inch 
long,  three  in  inch  end  of  each  piece.  These  very  well  represent 
the  spikes  to  be  used  in  the  real  beam. 

Setting  up  two  trestles,  with  triangular  pieces  put  on  top,  so  as 
to  give  supports  exactly  ten  feet  apart,  we  hang  a  "scale,"  or  plat- 
form suspended  by  ropes,  used  in  hoisting  bricks  or  other  mate- 
rials, to  the  centre  of  the  model  beam,  first  weighing  it  accurately. 
Before  going  further,  posts  must  be  set  up  in  pairs,  enclosing  the 
model  beam  between  them,  with  just  enough  room  to  allow  it  to 
deflect  freely.  This  is  to  prevent  the  beam  from  turning  over  on 
its  side,  which  so  small  a  stick  is  likely  to  do  under  a  centre  load. 
Then  bricks  are  piled  on  the  scale,  weighing  each  one  before  add- 
ing it.  As  the  weights  are  placed  one  by  one  on  the  scale,  we  add 
them  up,  and  experience  a  lively  interest  as  the  total  load  on  the 
beam  begins  to  approach  four  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  without 
any  sign  of  giving  way.  The  deflection  is  considerable,  and  the 
model  is  evidently  under  severe  strain;  so,  to  avoid  the  shock 
caused  by  the  placing  of  a  brick  on  the  pile,  we  increase  the  load 
more  gently  by  pouring  on  weighed  portions  of  sand.  Four  hun- 
dred and  fifty  pounds  are  passed ;  then  four  hundred  and  sixty ;  and 
little  by  little  the  load  approaches  four  hundred  and  seventy.  Just 
as  this  point  is  reached  a  warning  crack  is  heard,  and  we  stop ;  but 
nothing  further  follows ;  we  recommence  pouring,  but  before  anoth- 
er pound  is  added,  the  beam  yields,  letting  the  scale  drop  suddenly ; 
and,  on  examination,  the  lower  stick  of  the  combination  is  found 
to  be  torn  asunder.  •  The  second  model  breaks  at  four  hundred 
and  seventy  pounds,  and  a  third  at  four  hundred  and  seventy  and 
a  half.  Comparing  these  with  the  calculated  strength  of  a  solid 
beam,  we  find  that  the  girder  built  up  by  our  simple  method  proves 
to  possess  a  strength  equal  to  about  ninety-five  per  cent,  of  that 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  9! 

of  a  solid  beam  of  the  same  breadth  and  depth ;  a  result  superior 
to  that  obtained  by  indentations,  or  by  keys,  and  bolts,  or  straps. 
The  carpenter,  who  had  viewed  our  preparations  with  an  ill-con- 
cealed scorn  for  "them  little  slivers,"  is  profoundly  impressed  at 
the  resistance  which  the  slender  model  displays,  and  respectfully 
listens  to  our  directions  as  to  the  mode  of  trussing  the  larger  tim- 
bers. Although  the  large  sticks  are,  proportionally  to  their  size, 
much  weaker  than  small  ones,  and  the  substitution  of  board  lat- 
ticing for  the  thin  strips  of  the  model  gives  opportunity  for  a 
slight  bending  of  the  spikes,  which  would  diminish  the  stiffness 
of  the  compound  beam,  we  feel  ourselves  justified  in  assuming 
that,  by  placing  a  second  12  X  16  timber  under  the  first,  and 
sheathing  diagonally  on  each  side,  in  the  manner  indicated,  we 
shall  be  able  to  increase  its  strength,  if  not  by  two  hundred  and 
eighty  per  cent.,  as  in  the  model,  at  least  to  the  amount  which  our 
conditions  require ;  and  we  hasten  to  put  our  plan  into  execution, 
first  ordering  the  central  column  on  which  the  girders  rest  to  be 
lowered  to  correspond  with  the  increased  depth  of  the  new  girder. 
In  order  to  save  headroom  under  the  girder,  we  may,  after  shoring 
up  the  ends  of  the  floor-beams  on  each  side,  cut  off  the  portion 
which  overlaps  the  girder,  and,  after  this  has  been  reinforced  with 
the  second  stick,  and  the  boards  nailed  on,  the  compound  beam 
can  be  pushed  up  between  the  ends  of  the  beams,  flush  with  their 
top,  and  timbers,  3"  X  6",  may  be  bolted  to  the  sides  of  the  gird- 
er, on  which  the  beams  will  rest,  instead  of  being  supported  on 
the  top  of  the  girder.  Since  the  compound  beam  thus  made 
forms  virtually  a  lattice  truss,  of  which  the  upper  and  lower 
chords  are  in  contact,  its  strength,  like  that  of  all  trusses,  could  be 
increased  by  separating  the  beams,  so  as  to  make  the  depth  of  the 
truss  greater ;  and  in  this  case  the  side  struts  should  be  stronger  in 
proportion  to  the  longitudinal  timbers.  Our  girder  is,  however, 
strong  enough,  and  more  compact  than  a  truss. 

It  may  be  observed  that  a  compound  beam  of  this  kind  is  likely 
to  deflect  more,  under  a  given  load,  than  one  made  with  keys  and 
bolts ;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  load  for  which  it  is  designed, 
that  of  a  crowd  of  people,  is  never  likely  to  come  on  it,  so  that,  if 
the  absolute  strength  is  sufficient  to  meet  such  a  possible  emer- 
gency, the  deflection  need  give  no  concern.  As  it  is  decided  that 


92  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

there  shall  be  but  one  column  under  the  girder,  we  must  make 
sure  that  the  column  and  its  foundation  will  be  sufficient  to  carry 
their  load.  We  have  already  ascertained  that  the  total  possible 
weight  on  our  new  girder  is  78,967  pounds,  of  which  only  half  is 
supported  by  the  column,  the  remainder  being  carried  by  the  brick 
wall  on  which  the  western  end  of  the  girder  rests.  The  total 
weight  on  the  other  portion  of  the  girder,  which  carries  the  semi- 
circular part  of  the  floor,  is  only  four-fifths  as  great,  but  more 
than  half  of  it  will  come  upon  the  column,  so  it  will  be  prudent  to 
call  the  total  weight  on  the  column 
78,967  X  2 


Turning  to  any  table  of  cast-iron  columns,  we  find  that  one  of 
the  required  length,  7  inches  in  diameter,  and  with  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  thickness  of  metal,  will  be  sufficient  ;  and  as  the  one  on 
the  ground  is  larger  than  this,  we  need  have  no  fears  in  regard  to 
it.  As  the  ground,  however,  cannot  safely  be  loaded  with  more 
than  five  tons  to  the  square  foot,  we  must  see  that  the  footing- 
stone  under  the  column  covers  at  least  eight  square  feet;  and  we 
pick  out  a  rough  stone,  about  three  feet  square,  for  the  purpose, 
directing  the  contractor  to  have  a  "spot"  dressed  flat  on  the  top, 
for  the  base  plate  of  the  column  to  rest  on. 

Having  made  careful  notes  of  the  quantity  of  extra  timber 
used  for  the  new  trussed  beams,  and  of  the  time  occupied  in  cut- 
ting out,  making  over  and  replacing  the  work,  in  order  to  adjust 
the  cost  subsequently,  we  turn  to  look  at  the  lining  wall  of  the 
room,  which  is  being  built  up  inside  the  stone-work.  As  this  wall 
is  to  be  plastered,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  "strike"  the  mortar 
joints  off  flush  with  the  surface  of  the  brickwork,  thus  taking 
away  the  projections  needed  for  the  plaster  to  cling  to.  The 
common  way  of  reserving  a  proper  "key"  is  to  leave  the  mortar 
irregularly  projecting,  as  it  is  squeezed  out  of  the  joints  when  the 
bricks  are  hammered  into  place  with  the  trowel  ;  but  many  build- 
ers find  that  the  annoyance  caused  by  the  occasional  projection  of 
the  dried  mortar  beyond  the  line  of  the  plastering  is  so  great 
that  they  prefer  to  lay  the  horizontal  joints  full  of  mortar, 
striking  them  off  smooth,  but  to  lay  the  vertical  joints 
"slack,"  that  is,  only  partly  filled  with  mortar,  so  as  to  leave 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  y$ 

cavities  into  which  the  plaster  can  penetrate  and  obtain  a  firm 
hold. 

The  lining  wall  is  often  built  before  laying  the  floor-beams, 
which  rest  on  this,  and  not  on  the  main  mass  of  masonry;  but, 
although  a  four-inch  brick  wall,  well  tied  to  a  thicker  one  behind 
it,  possesses  surprising  strength,  the  unusual  weight  of  the  tiled 
chancel  floor  makes  it  desirable  to  support  the  beams  which  are  to 
carry  it  on  the  heavy  outside  wall.  In  the  tower  vestibule,  how- 
ever, there  is  no  objection  to  resting  the  timber  ceiling  on  the  lin- 
ing wall,  which,  being  of  face-brick,  will  not  be  built  until  near  the 
completion  of  the  structure,  to  avoid  marring  it. 

The  piers  are  next  inspected,  and  prove  this  time  to  be  well 
built,  of  bricks  properly  soaked  in  water,  and  laid  with  cement 
mortar.  One  or  two  are  crooked  or  out  of  plumb,  and  we  order 
them  to  be  taken  down  and  rebuilt;  and  in  a  few  instances  chips 
of  wood  have  been  used  as  wedges  between  the  top  of  the  piers 
and  the  girders,  which,  as  they  would  soon  shrink  and  allow  the 
floor  to  shake,  we  have  replaced  with  stone  chips  or  slate  and 
cement. 

The  church  at  our  next  visit  is  a  maze  of  scaffolding,  put  up 
for  the  use  of  the  plasterers,  and  furring  is  rapidly  going  on.  The 
upright  studs  against  the  walls  are  all  in  place,  and  spiked  as 
strongly  as  may  be  to  the  masonry.  Some  builders  rake  out  a 
joint,  and  drive  in  a  wedge-shaped  piece  of  wood  for  nailing  the 
furrings  to,  and  others  build  "wood  bricks,"  or  short  bits  of  joist, 
at  intervals  into  the  walls,  for  the  same  purpose ;  but  such  pieces 
are  very  apt  to  shrink  so  much  as  to  become  loose,  while  the  driv- 
ing of  wedges  may  endanger  the  stability  of  the  wall,  so  that  the 
practice  of  driving  the  spikes  directly  into  the  mortar  is  generally 
preferable.  Very  rarely  the  joints  are  raked  out  and  slips  of  lead 
laid  in,  the  spikes  being  driven  between  these,  but  the  gain  is  hard- 
ly worth  the  expense.  At  all  events,  it  is  desirable  and  usual  to 
stiffen  the  upright  furrings  by  angular  bridging  (Fig.  70)  in  the 
same  manner  as  a  partition. 

Some  precautions  should  at  this  stage  be  taken  to  lessen  the 
dangerously  inflammable  quality  of  this  light  construction.  As 
all  those  experienced  in  fires  know,  the  furring  studs  set  against 
the  walls  of  stone  structures  form  lofty  flues  of  inflammable  mate- 


94 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


rial  behind  the  plastering,  up  which  the  flames  run  with  incredible 
rapidity,  urged  by  the  strong  draft  which  can  at  all  times  be  felt 
rushing  up  through  them,  and  a  small  fire  originating  in  the  base- 
ment of  such  a  building  usually  breaks  out  immediately  in  the  roof, 
where  it  is  uncontrollable.  The  means  for  preventing  this,  and 
confining  an  accidental  fire  within  the  limits  where  it  can  be 
reached  and  extinguished,  are  extremely  simple :  a  single  row  of 
bricks  laid  in  coarse  mortar  on  the  floor  between  the  furring  studs 

will  cut  off  the  communication 
between  the  cellar  and  the  space 
behind  the  plastering,  so  that  a 
fire  catching  in  the  basement 
from  spontaneous  combustion 
of  coal,  proximity  of  smoke- 
flues  or  furnace-pipes  to  wood- 
work, or  any  other  cause,  is 
^  compelled,  for  want  of  access  to 
the  concealed  passages  behind 
the  furrings,  to  burn  through 
into  the  room,  where  it  may 
blaze  for  hours  without  doing 
much  harm,  and  is  easily 
quenched  with  a  few  pails  of 

water.  Two  rows  of  bricks  are  still  better  than  one,  and  the 
only  precaution  to  be  observed  is  to  fill  up  the  whole  space  from 
the  stone  wall  to  the  inside  finish, — wainscoting,  sheathing, 
plaster  or  base-board, — with  the  mass,  so  as  to  leave  no  open- 
ings. If  a  second  barrier  of  coarse  mortar  and  chips  is  laid  on 
top  of  the  bridging  (Fig.  71)  all  around  the  building,  it  will  be 
doubly  protected,  and  its  destruction  by  fire  will  be  rendered  slow 
and  difficult. 

While  the  furring  is  going  on,  the  plastering  mortar  should  be 
mixed,  and  the  door  and  window  frames  set.  In  brick  buildings 
the  latter  are  usually  set  in  place  at  the  beginning,  and  the  walls 
built  around  them,  and  this  is  sometimes  done  in  stone  structures, 
but  not  by  the  best  builders,  as  it  is  difficult  to  keep  the  frames 
from  being  knocked  slightly  out  of  shape  by  the  setting  of  the 
heavy  stones  against  them ;  and  by  laying  the  stone-work  separate- 


Fig.  70 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


95 


ly,  with  plumb  rule  and  level,  and  afterwards  trimming  it,  a  much 
smoother  and  straighter  surface  is  obtained,  against  which  the 
frame  can  be  fitted  weather-tight,  without  the  unreliable  and  often 
unsightly  pointing  from  behind  with  mortar  which  the  other 
method  involves. 

With  the  best  of  workmanship,  however,  crevices  are  some- 
times left  through  which  the  wind  can  penetrate,  and  wherever  the 
wind  can  go,  rain  and  snow  will  follow,  so  that  a  certain  amount 
of  packing  is  generally  necessary.  This  can  best  be  done  with 
cotton,  driven  in  between  the  wood  and  the  stone,  where  it  is  kept 
permanently  in  place  by  its  own  elasticity,  while  it  checks  the 
current  of  air  very  effectually. 

The  plastering  is  briefly  specified  to  be  the  best  three-coat 
work,  sand  finished  throughout.  At  least  as  soon  as  the  furring 
is  begun,  the  superintendent 
should  see  that  the  materials 
are  at  hand  for  making  mor- 
tar enough  for  the  whole  of 
the  plastering.  By  recollect- 
ing that  one  hundred  square 
yards  of  three-coat  plastering 
require  three  casks  of  lime, 
three  one-horse  loads  of 
sand,  one  and  a  half  bushels 
of  hair,  and  about  two  thou- 
sand laths,  the  total  quantity  Fig  7I 
needed  of  each  is  easily  reck- 
oned. A  place  should  then  be  prepared  without  delay,  where  the 
whole  mass  requisite  for  the  first,  or  scratch,  coat  can  be  mixed 
and  allowed  to  cool  for  a  week  before  any  of  it  is  put  on  the  walls. 
In  this  way  only  can  we  guard  against  the  occurrence  of  particles 
of  unslaked  or  partially  slaked  lime  in  the  mortar,  which  will 
continue  to  absorb  moisture  after  being  spread  on  the  laths,  and 
perhaps  months  later  will  cause  small  cracks  or  blisters,  or  throw 
off  little  chips  from  the  plastering,  disfiguring  it  very  much  when 
it  is  too  late  to  remedy  the  evil. 

In  regard  to  the  manner  of  mixing,  the  practice  varies.  Occa- 
sionally a  mason  is  found  who  is  willing  to  slake  the  lime  by  itself, 


96  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

and  leave  the  paste  for  several  days  or  weeks, — a  year,  even,  in 
some  cases, — during  which  it  becomes  somewhat  more  firm,  and 
acquires  a  beautifully  smooth,  "fat"  quality,  something  like  cream 
cheese.  This  heap  of  paste  is  drawn  upon  as  wanted,  and  mixed 
with  the  proper  proportion  of  sand  and  hair,  then  put  immediately 
on  the  walls.  The  disadvantages  of  this  process  are  the  difficulty 
of  distributing  the  hair  evenly  through  the  stiffened  paste  with- 
out the  help  of  water  to  loosen  the  tufts,  and  the  increased  labor 
required  for  working  the  mortar.  The  advantages  are  the  per- 
fect hydration  of  the  lime,  by  which  chip-cracks  and  blisters  are 
wholly  avoided,  the  smoothness  and  hardness  of  the  finished  plas- 
tering, and  its  greater  tenacity,  since  the  hair,  not  being  added 
until  the  lime  is  cold,  retains  its  full  strength,  instead  of  being 
burned  and  corroded  by  steeping  in  the  hot,  caustic  mixture  which 
is  the  first  result  of  slaking.  Few  builders,  however,  are  disposed 
to  proceed  in  a  way  so  inconvenient  to  them,  and  most  of  them 
content  themselves  with  spreading  out  the  lime,  pouring  on  water 
from  a  hose,  and  after  a  little  stirring  adding  the  hair,  which  is 
mixed  into  the  steaming  liquid,  and  the  sand  immediately  thrown 
over  it,  incorporated  as  well  as  may  be,  and  the  whole  mass  piled 
up  for  use.  The  hair  in  this  case  deteriorates  as  fast  as  the  lime 
improves,  and  a  season  of  cooling  which  would  be  very  beneficial 
to  the  latter  ingredient  will  nearly  destroy  the  former,  so  that  a 
course  must  needs  be  taken  midway  between  the  two  extremes. 

Whatever  mode  is  adopted,  a  clean  floor  of  planks  must  be 
laid,  with  sides  a  foot  high  or  more,  to  keep  dirt  from  being  mixed 
with  the  mortar.  There  is  a  process,  said  to  be  in  vogue  in  cer- 
tain country  districts,  of  slaking  the  lime  upon  the  ground,  and 
then  hoeing  up  grass,  roots,  soil  and  lime  into  a  viscid  mess,  which 
is  spread  upon  the  laths,  where  it  stays  long  enough  for  the  mason 
to  get  his  pay;  but  such  methods  of  construction  are  not  within 
the  scope  of  this  work. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  tell  by  the  appearance  of  a  heap  of 
plastering  mortar  whether  the  lime,  sand  and  hair  are  of  good 
quality  and  in  suitable  proportion.  If  properly  mixed,  which  will 
be  shown  by  the  absence  of  streaks  in  the  mass,  a  small  quantity  of 
the  mortar  should  be  taken  up  on  a  trowel,  slate  or  piece  of  board. 
If  it  hangs  down  from  the  edge  without  dropping  off,  the  quantity 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  07 

of  hair  is  sufficient ;  or,  if  it  is  practicable  to  see  the  mixture  made, 
one  bushel  of  hair  to  each  cask  of  lime  in  the  first  coat  will  be  the 
proper  proportion.  The  quality  of  the  hair  can  be  tested  in  the 
same  way.  Long  ox-hair  is  perhaps  the  best.  It  is  strong,  and 
the  fibres  an  inch  or  more  in  length.  Goat's-hair  is  longer,  but 
not  so  strong,  and  short  cattle  and  horse  hair  is  of  the  least  value. 
On  drying  a  small  quantity  of  mortar,  an  excess  of  sand  will  be 
shown  by  its  being  easily  rubbed  away  with  the  fingers.  The 
quality  of  the  lime  is  best  tested  by  observing  the  slaking.  For 
plastering,  lump-lime  only  is  used  in  ordinary  cases,  and  it  should 
slake  energetically  and  fall  into  a  smooth  paste,  without  any  re- 
fractory lumps  or  particles  of  "core."  If  such  are  found,  all  the 
casks  of  that  brand  should  be  rejected,  or  all  the  lime  paste  made 
from  it  should,  while  still  fresh  and  liquid,  be  run  through  a  fine 
wire  sieve,  to  separate  the  bits  of  core. 

Before  lathing,  grounds  must  be  put  on  wherever  necessary. 
These  are  strips  of  wood  planed  carefully  to  a  uniform  thickness, 
seven-eighths  of  an  inch  or  more  where  the  plastering  is  to  be 
three-coat,  or  three-fourths  for  ordinary  two-coat  work,  secured 
to  the  furrings  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  convenient  nailings  for 
the  subsequent  finishings ;  one  row,  for  instance,  being  set  an  inch 
or  so  below  the  top  of  the  future  base-board,  two  or  three  in  the 
height  of  a  wainscoting,  a  border  around  each  door  and  window, 
and  so  on.  Being  of  equal  thickness,  and  usually  straightened 
with  the  straight-edge  and  plumb  rule  to  correct  any  irregularity 
in  the  furrings  or  studs,  they  afford  guides  for  bringing  the  plas- 
ter to  an  even  surface.  Further  guides  are  formed  by  the  angle- 
beads,  or  grounds  of  other  shapes,  which  are  secured  to  the  cor- 
ners of  the  walls  before  lathing.  The  customs  of  different 
localities  vary  in  this  point,  and  the  superintendent  will  probably 
be  asked  to  decide  on  some  particular  mode,  if  the  specification 
gives  no  definite  instructions. 

In  the  Eastern  States,  where  walls  are  almost  invariably 
papered  or  decorated  as  soon  as  finished,  it  is  usual  to  nail  to  the 
studs  at  the  angles  a  moulding  in  section  like  Fig.  72  or  73,  or  a 
metal  substitute  for  it.  This  serves  as  a  guide  for  putting  on  the 
mortar,  and  when  the  plastering  is  completed  gives  a  finish  to  the 
corner  which  is  not  readily  broken  or  scratched,  and  is  easy  to 

7 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


cover  with  paint  or  paper  to  good  effect.  In  New  York  and  other 
places  where  a  pure  white  hard-finished  surface  is  or  has  been 
fashionable,  it  is  customary  to  turn  the  corners  by  means  of  a 
"rule-joint/'  worked  in  the  plastering  itself,  and  consisting  of  a 
vertical  semi-cylindrical  moulding  some  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
in  radius,  which  stops  against  a  bevelled  surface  a  little  below  the 
cornice  and  above  the  base-board  or  wain- 
scot (Fig.  74).^ 

These  rule-  joints  are  beautifully  exe- 
cuted by  the  best  plasterers,  but  they  cause 
a  rather  awkward  succession  of  breaks  in 
the  vertical  line  of  the  angle,  since  the 
plaster  must  be  fully  brought  out  to  the 
corner  above  and  below  all  mouldings,  as 
otherwise  a  troublesome  horizontal  surface 
would  be  left  (Fig.  75),  which  with  the 
small  wooden  angle-bead  is  not  noticeable  ; 
and  they  are  liable  to  scratches  and  abra- 
sion during  the  progress  of  the  work  and 
afterwards.  This  risk  of  abrasion  is  with 
plaster  angles  a  serious  matter,  and  the 
difficulty  of  the  common  rule-  joint  is 
sometimes  overcome  by  squaring  out  the 
plaster  to  the  edge,  and  subsequently  put- 
ting on  a  wooden  saddle-moulding  (Fig. 
76)  cut  out  of  a  solid  piece,  but  this  device 
has  little  to  recommend  it,  and  a  much 
better  way  is  to  use  the  metal  angle-bead, 
of  which  various  forms  are  in  use,  which 
is  nailed  on  the  corner  before  plastering, 
and  presents,  when  the  work  is  finished, 
only  a  thin  edge  of  metal  at  the  angle.  For  so  large  a  building  as 
a  church,  the  rule-  joints  have  a  massive  look  which  is  pleasing,  so 
we  choose  this  method  of  finishing  the  corners,  and  leave  the  lath- 
ers to  their  task,  first  enjoining  upon  them  to  set  the  laths  at  least 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  apart,  and  to  break  joint  every  six  courses. 
The  weather  having  now  settled  to  steady  cold,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  heat  the  building  by  artificial  means,  to  prevent  the 


Fig.  74 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


99 


plaster  from  freezing,  which  will  disintegrate  it  and  cause  it  to 
crumble  and  fall  off  the  laths.  Some  supervision  should  be  exer- 
cised over  the  stoves  or  furnaces  employed  for  the  purpose,  as 
workmen  are  incredibly  careless  and  indifferent  about 
the  dangers  to  which  they  expose  the  property  of 
other  people  The  windows  must  be  well  closed 
with  boards,  and  temporary  windows  inserted. 

After  the  first,  or  scratch,  coat  is  partly  on,  the 
superintendent  should  endeavor  to  look  behind  the 
laths,  to  see  if  it  has  been  well  trowelled,  so  as  to 
press  the  mortar  through  the  openings  and  cause  it 
to  bend  over  by  its  own  weight,  forming  a  hook  by 
which  the  plaster  is  held  to  the  laths.     As  this  is  the 
only  way  in  which  the  whole  substance  of  the  plas- 
tering can  be  kept  on  the  walls,  it  is  very  necessary 
that  ceilings  should  clinch  well  over  every  lath,  and         g*  75 
walls  over  every  second  or  third  lath.     The  scratching  should  be 
thoroughly  done,  as  it  affords  the  key  for  the  second  coat,  and 
there  should  be  no  appearance  of  tufts  of  hair,  which  would  show 
that  the  mortar  had  not  been  thoroughly 
mixed. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  see  whether  the 
specification  directs  that  the  plastering  shall 
be  carried  to  the  floor  everywhere,  or  only  to 
the  grounds. 

It  is  so  habitual  with  builders  to  plaster 
only  to  the  grounds  that  they  frequently 
overlook  the  directions  which  require  a  bet- 
ter mode.  Of  course  it  is  unnecessary  to 
carry  the  hard-finish  behind  the  wood-work, 
but  the  first  two  coats  should  be  required,  if 
any  plastering  in  that  position  is  specified. 

By  the  second,  or  brown,  coat,  all  the 
surfaces  must  be  brought  to  a  true  plane,  the 
angles  made  straight,  the  walls  plumb  and 


Fig.  76 


the  ceilings  level,  since  no  effectual  corrections  can  be  made  after- 
wards. The  wall-spaces  in  the  interior  of  the  church  are  so  broken 
that  no  great  care  is  required  to  obtain  a  true  surface,  and  we  may 


IOQ  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

content  ourselves  with  a  close  examination  of  each,  to  detect  irreg- 
ularities, and  tufts  of  hair,  which  will  make  unsightly  spots  in  the 
finished  work.  The  brown  coating  must  on  no  account  be  allowed 
to  begin  until  the  first  coat  is  thoroughly  dry.  Men  accustomed 
to  two-coat  work,  in  which  the  first  coat  is  often  only  superficially 
hardened  when  the  second  is  put  on,  frequently  treat  three-coat 
work  in  the  same  manner,  thereby  weakening  or  sometimes  ruin- 
ing the  whole.  If  part  of  the  walls  are  to  be  plastered  on  brick- 
work, and  others  on  laths,  the  scratch  coat  is  put  only  on  the  laths, 
and  when  this  is  dry,  the  brown  coat  is  spread  over  the  whole,  in- 
cluding the  brickwork. 

After  the  brown  coat  is  dry  and  hard,  the  rule  joints  at  the 
angles  should  first  be  made,  and  the  third  coat  then  applied.  This, 
instead  of  being  mixed  with  marble  dust,  instead  of  sand,  and  with 
a  portion  of  plaster  of  Paris,  as  would  be  proper  for  a  smooth  sur- 
face, should  for  our  purpose  contain  a  large  proportion  of  rather 
coarse  sand,  sifted  so  as  to  be  uniform  in  grain,  and  little  or  no 
plaster  of  Paris,  which  would  set  so  quickly  as  to  hinder  the  thor- 
ough rubbing  with  the  float  which  is  necessary  to  bring  the  sand 
evenly  to  the  surface. 

The  plastering  once  dry,  the  wood  finishing  can  proceed  with- 
out hindrance.  The  superintendent  must  henceforth  devote  him- 
self conscientiously  to  the  study  of  the  detail  drawings  as  they 
arrive  from  the  architect's  office,  and  endeavor  to  forestall  any 
slight  mistakes  or  misfits,  which  are  sure  to  happen  through  the 
unavoidable  variation  of  the  finished  work  from  the  exact  dimen- 
sions shown  on  the  plans.  If  a  panelled  wainscot  is  shown,  he 
should  measure  on  the  spot  the  length  of  the  various  portions  of 
wall  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied,  and  compare  them  with  the 
drawings,  spacing  off  the  panels  as  shown  in  the  details,  so  that 
there  may  be  no  awkward  want  of  continuity,  or  disproportionate 
members  at  the  angles.  The  stock  for  the  woodwork  must  also 
be  looked  after.  A  load  of  hard-wood  lumber  inevitably  contains 
a  large  percentage  of  worm-eaten,  stained  or  otherwise  defective 
pieces,  which  must  have  the  defects  cut  out  in  working  them  up, 
and  a  sharp  eye  is  needed  to  see  that  this  is  done, — that  a  piece  of 
black  walnut  streaked  with  white  sap  is  not  put  into  an  out-of-the- 
way  panel,  or  a  knot  cut  out  and  a  patch  inserted  in  another  place, 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  IOi 

where  it  may  be  unobserved  while  fresh  from  the  sand-paper,  but 
will  grow  more  conspicuous  afterwards.  Any  carelessness  or 
want  of  decision  on  the  part  of  the  superintendent  is  apt  to  be 
taken  advantage  of. 

Generally,  where  the  floors  are  double,  all  bases  and  wainscot- 
ings  and  other  "standing  finish"  are  put  on  before  the  upper 
boarding  is  laid.  In  this  way  the  base-boards,  which  extend  half 
an  inch  or  more  below  the  surface  of  the  upper  boarding,  which 
is  laid  up  against  them,  can  shrink,  as  they  are  certain  to  do  more 
or  less,  without  opening  a  crack  between  them  and  the  floor,  and 
no  care  is  needed  in  fitting  them  to  the  floor  (Fig.  77),  while  with 

a  single  flooring  it  is  cus- 
tomary either  to  "scribe" 
the  base  to  the  boards,  so 
as  to  fit  minutely  all  their 
irregularities,  which  an- 
swers well  enough  until 

Fig.  78  the  shrinka£e  of  base  and 

Boor-beams    draws    them 

apart;  or  to  plough  the  base  laboriously  into  the  floor  (Fig.  78). 
In  our  building  we  follow  the  former  course  in  all  parts  except  the 
chancel,  whose  tiled  surface  cannot  well  be  fitted  against  the 
wood- work.  As  tiles  and  marble  are  easily  injured  by  the  opera- 
tions of  workmen,  we  will  wait  as  long  as  possible  before  under- 
taking this  portion,  carrying  the  nave  nearly  to  completion  before 
touching  the  chancel  at  all. 

When  all  the  wood-work  in  the  nave  is  finished  except  laying 
the  upper  floor,  the  marble  steps  at  the  chancel  entrance  may  be 
set  upon  the  brick  wall  built  up  to  receive  them. 

The  young  superintendent  should  be  familiar,  from  observa- 
tion and  comparison  at  some  good  marble- worker's,  with  the 
appearances  which  characterize  the  different  qualities  of  marble : 
in  this  way  only  can  he  judge  with  certainty  whether  the  proper 
kind  of  material  is  furnished.  Often  pieces  of  marble  whose 
appearance  is  injured  by  obtrusive  spots  or  streaks  are  sent  in- 
stead of  the  best  quality,  under  the  pretext  that  there  is  nothing 
better,  and  sometimes  even  a  coarse,  soft  Vermont  marble, 
streaked  with  a  blue  somewhat  resembling  the  Italian,  is  palmed 


I02  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

off  on  a  contractor  in  place  of  it,  but  the  inferior  kind  can  easily 
be  distinguished  by  its  coarse  grain,  and  the  yellowish  cast  of  the 
white  portions. 

As  soon  as  the  steps  are  accurately  set,  they  should  be  pro- 
tected with  boards,  and  the  laying  of  the  tiles  may  begin.  For 
convenience  in  building,  an  under  floor  has  been  laid  over  the 
chancel,  as  well  as  the  nave  and  aisles,  and  this  rough  flooring 
should  now  be  taken  up,  sawed  into  short  pieces  so  as  to  fit  be- 
tween the  beams,  and  these  pieces  laid  in,  on  strips  previously 
nailed  to  the  sides  of  the  beams. 

The  best,  and  the  only  durable,  way  of  laying  encaustic  tiles 
on  a  floor  framed  with  wooden  beams  is  to  make  the  foundation 
for  them  of  bricks  set  edgeways  on  the  short  pieces  of  board  be- 
tween the  beams,  but  to  save  material  the  bricks  are  sometimes 
laid  flat,  though  the  result  is  much  inferior.  In  our  case  the 
proper  mode  is  specified,  and  it  is  only  necessary  for  us  to  make 
sure  that  the  strips  or  "fillets"  are  nailed  on  at  the  proper  distance 
from  the  top  of  the  beams,  a  matter  about  which  workmen  are 
very  careless. 

The  tiles  are  from  ^  to  5^  of  an  inch  thick,  and  to  ensure  a 
continuous  but  thin  bed  of  cement  between  them  and  the  brick, 
the  top  of  the  latter  should  be  J4  of  an  inch  below  the  line  of  the 
finished  floor.  The  brick  to  be  used  may  measure  from  3  to  4^/2 
inches  in  width,  according  to  locality,  so  we  try  those  on  the 
ground,  and  find  them  to  vary  from  3^/2  to  3^4  inches.  The  max- 
imum width  must  be  taken,  which  added  to  the  J4  of  an  inch  for 
tiles  and  cement  gives  4j4  inches  depth  from  the  finished  floor  to 
the  boarding,  or,  as  the  boarding  is  %  of  an  inch  thick,  5^  inches 
from  the  finished  floor  to  the  top  of  the  fillet.  The  beams  should 
stand  in  the  same  relation  to  the  tiling  as  they  would  to  a  wooden 
floor  of  double  boarding,  in  order  to  avoid  a  disagreeable  break 
between  the  chancel  floor  and  that  of  the  adjacent  robing-room, 
and  as  each  portion  of  the  double  flooring  is  %  of  an  inch  thick, 
the  whole  distance  from  the  finished  floor  to  the  beams  will  be 
1 34  inches,  which  being  deducted  from  the  distance  last  found 
will  give  3^6  inches  as  the  proper  gauge  from  the  top  of  the 
beams  to  the  top  of  the  fillet.  A  thorough  understanding  of  this 
matter  will  save  much  subsequent  annoyance  and  expense  in 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

cutting  off  brick  which  are  too  high,  or  concreting  up  from  a  sur- 
face set  too  low. 

It  is  better  and  much  more  economical  to  have  tiles  laid  by 
the  parties  who  furnish  them,  and  contracts  are  generally  made 
for  the  floor  complete,  but  cases  may  occur  where  the  local  masons 
will  be  called  upon  to  do  the  work.  In  such  cases  the  brick  sur- 
face must  be  swept  clean  and  thoroughly  wet,  and  the  tiles  must 
be  soaked  in  water  for  some  time  before  they  are  used.  Without 
these  precautions,  either  the  brick  or  the  tile  will  absorb  water 
from  the  thin  layer  of  cement  between  them,  making  it  powdery 
and  useless.  The  best  Portland  cement  only  is  suitable  for  use — 
the  American  brands,  if  fresh,  being  quite  equal  to  most  of  the 
English  or  German  found  in  our  markets — and  is  to  be  mixed 
rather  thin,  without  any  addition  of  sand.  The  pattern  must  be 
commenced  from  the  centre,  which  is  to  be  very  exactly  ascertained 
by  previous  measurement,  and  straight-edged  strips  of  board  should 
be  put  down  as  guides  for  each  day's  work,  not  only  for  regulating 
the  lines  of  the  pattern,  but  also  for  securing  a  uniform  surface, 
which  is  done  by  first  levelling  them  carefully,  and  setting  the 
tiles  by  means  of  a  straight-edge  resting  on  the  strips.  Each  tile 
is  set  in  a  bed  of  cement  spread  for  it,  and  beaten  down  to  the 
proper  point  with  the  wooden  handle  of  the  trowel.  After  a 
sufficient  number  have  been  laid,  the  joints  may  be  grouted  with 
liquid  cement,  which  must,  however,  be  immediately  wiped  off  the 
surface  of  the  tiles,  since  it  is  difficult  to  remove  it  when  dry. 

If  the  cement  is  good,  the  tiles  cannot,  after  a  few  days,  be 
removed  without  breaking,  so  that  too  much  care  cannot  be  exer- 
cised in  placing  them  properly  at  first.  When  the  pattern  reaches 
the  edge  it  is  usually  necessary  to  cut  many  of  the  tiles.  This  can 
be  done  by  soaking  them  well  in  water,  and  then  scoring  a  line 
with  a  sharp  chisel  where  the  separation  is  to  be  made ;  then  plac- 
ing the  chisel  exactly  on  the  line,  a  sharp  blow  will  divide  the  tile 
neatly.  Wide  chisels  should  be  used,  and  unless  the  tile  is  well 
soaked,  it  is  apt  to  fly  into  fragments. 

After  the  floor  is  done,  it  is  covered  with  sawdust  an  inch  or 
two  deep,  and  planks  laid  over  it  to  walk  on.  The  base-boards 
and  wainscoting  are  then  fitted  down  upon  it.  The  marble  tiling 
is  laid  in  the  same  way,  on  bricks  set  on  edge,  but  the  marble  is 


104  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

thicker,  usually  varying  from  seven-eighths  to  one  and  a  quarter 
inches,  the  under  side  being  quite  rough ;  and  the  fillets  should  be 
set  accordingly.  The  laying  is  much  easier  than  that  of  clay  tiles, 
and  mortar  of  cement,  lime  and  sand  in  equal  parts  may  be  used. 
By  the  time  our  building  has  reached  this  point,  spring  has 
advanced,  and  the  warm,  moist  days  of  May  present  the  best  pos- 
sible opportunity  for  pointing  and  cleaning  down  the  exterior  of 
the  stone-work.  The  brownstone  ashlar  will  look  best  if  pointed 
with  mortar  of  nearly  the  same  color  as  the  stone,  which  can  be  made 
by  mixing  burnt  umber  with  the  cement  used.  The  best  Portland 
cement  is  preferable  to  any  other,  and  is  to  be  thoroughly  mixed 
with  an  equal  bulk  of  sand,  and  such  coloring  matter  as  may  be 


Fig.  79  ^  Fig.  80  Fig.  81 


required,  but  with  only  just  water  enough  to  give  the  compound 
a  mealy  consistency.  The  old  mortar  is  raked  out  of  the  joints  to 
a  depth  of  an  inch,  or  if,  as  is  likely,  that  in  the  upper  part  is 
found  to  be  frozen  and  powdery  for  a  greater  distance  inward,  it 
should  be  completely  removed  as  far  as  the  freezing  has  extended ; 
then  the  pointing  mortar  is  inserted  and  strongly  driven  in  with  a 
steel  jointer  or  S-shaped  instrument,  rubbing  it  until  the  moisture 
is  squeezed  out  upon  the  surface.  The  tool  is  formed  to  mould  the 
edge  of  the  joints  in  various  ways  as  it  is  rubbed.  The  most  durable 
form  is  the  hollow  (Fig.  79) ,  but  the  half-round  (Fig.  80)  is  often 
used,  as  well  as  the  fillet  (Fig.  81 ) .  In  the  two  latter  the  mortar  is 
less  thoroughly  compressed,  and  the  projecting  part  may  fall  off. 

The  cleaning  down  is  done  with  muriatic  acid  and  water, 
applied  with  a  sponge,  and  followed  with  pure  water.  This  re- 
moves the  lime  stains,  and  leaves  all  neat. 

The  subsequent  operations  in  the  church,  such  as  painting, 
glazing,  and  decoration,  can  best  be  studied  in  connection  with 
other  constructions  in  which  they  play  a  more  important  part. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

/ 

CHAPTER  II 

WOODEN  DWELLING  HOUSES 

ONE  of  the  most  difficult  portions  of  an  architect's  business  is 
precisely  that  which  amateurs  usually  imagine  to  be  the  easiest, — 
the  superintendence  of  the  work  connected  with  dwelling  houses. 
It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  an  intelligent  householder,  who  has 
spent  a  large  part  of  his  time  for  years  in  observing  the  defects  in 
his  own  habitation,  and  comparing  it  with  those  of  his  neighbors, 
would  find  no  difficulty  in  directing  the  construction  of  a  similar 
building,  but  experience  soon  shows  that  the  knowledge  which 
most  persons  have  of  the  structures  they  live  in  is  a  very  superfi- 
cial one,  consisting  in  the  observation  of  results,  rather  than  of 
the  processes  by  which  the  results  are  obtained ;  so  that  the  ama- 
teur house-builder  is  apt  to  find  himself  quite  at  fault  in  endeavor- 
ing to  give  the  necessary  preliminary  directions  for  securing  the 
particular  objects  of  strength,  durability,  healthfulness,  appear- 
ance or  finish  which  he  has  most  at  heart.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
often  necessary,  and  always  desirable,  that  unprofessional  persons 
should  be  able  to  direct  the  operations  of  mechanics,  and  make 
contracts  for  various  kinds  of  work,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the 
suggestions  contained  in  the  following  pages,  although  intended 
primarily  for  young  architects  and  superintendents,  will  not  be 
found  too  technical  for  the  ordinary  reader,  and  that  the  explana- 
tions given  with  regard  to  the  objects  which  it  is  desirable  to  seek, 
and  the  means  by  which  they  can  be  attained,  will  be  found  ser- 
viceable to  the  large  class  of  persons  who  are  interested  in  build- 
ing, either  for  themselves  or  others,  as  well  as  to  those  occupants 
of  houses  already  built  who  would  be  glad  to  understand  more 

(105) 


106  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

clearly  the  structure  of  their  dwellings,  with  a  view  either  to  the 
correction  of  defects,  or  the  planning  of  improvements. 

The  point  in  which  amateurs  are  particularly  liable  to  fail  is 
the  choosing  of  a  proper  site,  and  as  even  experienced  architects 
are  not  always  successful  in  this  respect,  a  few  directions  in  regard 
to  the  placing  of  houses  upon  the  ground  should  not  be  omitted. 

In  all  cases  it  is  essential  to  determine  the  position  approxi- 
mately before  the  plans  are  begun,  in  order  that  the  building  may 
be  so  arranged  as  to  present  an  agreeable  appearance 
Location"'"9  from  the  neighboring  streets,  securing  at  the  same 
time  the  greatest  pleasantness  of  prospect  from  the 
windows,  with  the  most  cheerful  light  and  sunshine  in  the  rooms, 
that  the  situation  can  be  made  to  yield.  In  our  climate,  the  best 
aspect  for  the  windows  of  living-rooms,  particularly 
of  bed-chambers,  is  south  or  south-east.  Such  rooms 
are  warm  in  winter  and  cool  in  summer,  and  cheerful  at  all  sea- 
sons. Next  to  a  southern  exposure,  the  eastern  is  the  pleasantest, 
and  may  be  appropriated  for  dining-rooms,  which  will  thus  enjoy 
the  advantage  of  the  early  morning  sunshine,  with  coolness  during 
the  rest  of  the  day.  Between  the  western  and  the  northern  aspect 
there  is  little  to  choose ;  the  cheerlessness  of  the  one  is  hardly  more 
objectionable  than  the  heat,  on  summer  evenings,  of  the  other,  so 
that  these  sides  of  a  dwelling-house  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be 
given  up  to  inferior  rooms,  halls  and  stairways.  Of  course,  con- 
siderations of  prospect  and  position  with  respect  to  the  approaches 
must  affect  the  plan  more  or  less,  but  the  skill  of  the  designer  will 
be  shown  by  the  success  with  which  he  contrives  to  satisfy  all  the 
requirements  at  the  same  time. 

Other  points  will,  however,  claim  the  attention  of  the  careful 
architect,  besides  the  more  obvious  ones  of  situation  and  exposure, 
and  the  final  staking  out  of  the  building  should  never 
^e  attempted  until  they  have  been  thoroughly  consid- 
ered. Foremost  among  these  is  the  character  of  the 
ground, — whether  wet  or  dry,  springy  or  well-drained.  The 
only  certain  test  of  this  consists  in  sinking  pits  at  different  places, 
to  the  depth  proposed  for  the  future  cellar,  or  a  little  below,  if  the 
trials  are  made  in  the  dry  season ;  but  indications  may  be  found  in 
the  conformation  of  the  surface.  Depressions,  or  level  spots 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

hemmed  in  by  ledges  of  rock  or  elevations,  even  slight  ones,  gen- 
erally retain  water  near  the  surface.  The  ridges  which  enclose 
the  basin  may  be  at  some  distance,  but  the  effect  will  be  the  same. 
The  upper  part  of  hill  slopes,  also,  contrary  to  the  common  notion, 
is  very  apt  to  be  wet  and  springy,  while  rocky  regions  seldom 
furnish  dry  cellars  unless  unusual  precautions  are  taken. 

Such  precautions  should,  however,  be  taken  wherever  there  is 
occasion  for  them,  since  a  house  with  a  wet  cellar  is,  to  speak 

briefly,  unfit  for  habitation.     The  main  principle  to 
i.    i  •         •    j-         j-  -1    •    ^    L  Iu  A  Ground-Water 

be  borne  in  mind  in  ordinary  soils  is  that  the  ground- 
water  stands  nearly  at  a  level  (Fig.  82),  varying,  like  the  tides, 
with  the  season;  and  that  the  smaller  elevations  in  gravelly  soil 


Fig.  82 

form  islands  in  the  subterranean  lake,  upon  which  a  house  may  be 
built  with  perfect  safety,  while  another,  a  few  rods  distant,  would 
have  its  basement  perpetually  steeped  in  moisture.  The  existence 
of  ground-water  a  foot  or  two  below  the  cellar  bottom  is  of  com- 
paratively little  consequence,  provided  that  this  is  well  concreted, 
and  that  the  water  never  rises  any  higher. 

More  important  elevations  generally  contain  a  substructure  of 
rock,  above  which  the  rain  collects,  and  flows  down- 
ward, coming  to  the  surface  at  intervals  in  the  form 
of  springs.  As  the  soil  is  always  thinner  near  the 
top  of  the  hill,  such  springs  are  more  common  there,  and  are 
the  more  annoying  because  their  existence  often  cannot  be 
detected  until  the  progress  of  the  excavation  brings  them  to 
light.  These  streams  can,  however,  in  ordinary  soils-  be  in- 
tercepted without  much  difficulty,  and  their  current  turned 

harmlessly  toward  one  side;  but  it  is  otherwise  with 

n  I  •  1        T-U  1         M.''*          •  LI      •  Rocky  Soil 

cellars  cut  in  rock.     These  are  almost  invariably  in- 
fested with  small  veins  of  water,  which  run  along  the  seams  of  the 
ledge  and  collect  in  the  basin  formed  by  the  excavation,  soaking 
through  the  house  walls,  and  saturating  the  concrete  floors ;  and 
the  extra  cost  of  intercepting  such  veins  and  of  cutting  a  channel 


I0g  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

to  convey  the  water  to  a  proper  outfall  is  usually  very  serious,  so 
that  locations  of  this  kind  should  be  avoided ;  or  if  that  is  impos- 
sible, the  level  of  the  cellar  bottom  should  be  set  so  high  that  little 
or  no  excavation  in  the  rock  will  be  needed,  and  the  downward 
course  of  the  water  will  not  be  interrupted.  This  may  always  be 
done,  without  detriment  to  the  appearance  of  the  building,  by 
means  of  suitable  grading  or  terracing. 

Clayey  soils  are  also  unfavorable.     Being  impervious,  they 
retain  the  water  which  may  settle  into  the  new  excavation,  just 
outside  the  cellar  walls,  until  it  finds  an  escape  for 
itself,  very  probably  into  the  building.     Moreover, 
they  expand  greatly  in  wet  seasons,  or  in  frosty  weather,  to  con- 
tract again  in  summer ;  while  the  tenacity  with  which  frozen  clay 
clings  to  stone  or  brick  work  often  causes  the  dislocation  or  de- 
rangement of  cellar  walls  and  piers. 

Most  house-lots  in  the  country  or  suburban  towns  offer  at  least 
some  choice  of  location,  and  as  a  few  inches  difference  in  the  level 
of  the  cellar  bottom,  or  a  few  feet  difference  in  the  distance  of  the 
building  from  a  ledge,  may  be  quite  sufficient,  without  special 
precautions,  to  determine  the  wetness  or  dryness  of  the  cellar,  and 
therefore  the  healthfulness  or  unhealthfulness  of  the  house,  a 
judicious  study  of  the  site  is  of  great  importance. 

Where  the  limits  or  the  character  of  the  plot  admit  of  no 
choice,  it  will  in  very  many  cases  be  necessary  to  incur  extra  and 
unforeseen  expense  in  draining  the  excavation  thoroughly.  Some 
of  the  expedients  to  be  adopted  have  been  described  in  the  first 
part,  and  others  will  be  mentioned  below ;  so  that  with  the  help  of 
these  hints  the  architect  or  private  owner  will  be  able  to  deal  with 
any  difficulty  which  he  is  likely  to  meet. 

The  house  whose  construction  we  have  to  follow  is  situated  on 
the  side  of  a  rather  steep  hill,  sloping  toward  the  north.  The  lot 
on  which  the  house  stands  comprises  about  six  acres, 
an(*  *ke  avenue  leading  to  the  building  passes  for  some 
distance  through  a  cutting,  seven  or  eight  feet  deep. 
Rocks  appear  above  the  surface  in  various  portions  of  the  lot,  and 
several  springs  ooze  through  the  sides  of  the  cutting  made  for  the 
driveway,  indicating  that  the  ledge  is  not  far  beneath.  The  house 
is  to  be  of  modest  dimensions,  comprising  a  parlor,  dining-room, 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

hall,  kitchen,  staircase-hall  and  back  staircase  on  the  ground  floor, 
and  four  chambers,  dressing-room  and  bath-room  on  the  second 
story,  with  four  finished  attics  above.  The  cellar  contains  a 
laundry,  furnace-room,  vegetable-cellar,  and  open  place  for  stor- 
age, and  a  servant's  water-closet.  The  hall  is  finished  in  oak, 
with  oak  floor ;  the  principal  staircase  is  of  cherry,  with  mahogany 
posts  and  rail;  the  parlor  is  finished  in  maple,  with  pine  floor, 
bordered  with  maple  and  cherry  parquetry  work ;  and  the  dining- 
room  is  in  ash.  The  kitchen  and  laundry  are  finished  in  hard 
pine,  with  floors  of  the  same. 

All  the  rooms  in  the  second  story  are  in  whitewood,  except  the 
bath-room,  which,  in  order  to  give  a  pleasant  liveliness  of  effect,  is 
finished  with  alternate  black  walnut  and  maple. 

The  attics  are  in  pine  throughout.  The  hall  and  one  large 
attic  room  are  to  be  finished  so  as  to  show  the  natural  color  of  the 
wood ;  the  other  rooms  will  be  painted. 

The  plans  and  specifications  having  been  carefully  drawn,  the 
owner,  if  unacquainted  with  building  matters,  should  take  pains  to 
understand  them  fully.  While  still  in  the  architect's 
hands,  he  should  with  his  help  consider  the  various 
points  in  regard  to  which  he  has  any  particular  theory 
or  preference,  and  by  measuring  for  himself  in  the  houses  of  his 
friends  the  dimensions  of  doors,  windows,  stairs,  closets,  sinks, 
baths  and  other  details,  and  comparing  them  with  those  shown  on 
his  plans,  he  can  form  a  clear  notion  of  what  is  intended  by  them, 
and  satisfy  himself  that  they  indicate  just  what  he  wishes  his  house 
to  be.  The  specifications,  also,  he  should  study  carefully  at  home 
with  his  family,  and  may  take  advantage  of  the  suggestions  which 
they  furnish  to  modify  certain  points,  if  he  wishes,  in  a  way  to 
please  the  fancy  of  the  persons  who  will  occupy  the  various  rooms. 
Such  study  as  this  is  of  much  value  to  the  owner,  who  is  thereby 
often  saved  from  expense  in  altering  work,  already  done  in  the 
ordinary  way,  in  order  to  gain  some  object  desirable  to  him- 
self, but  about  which  he  had  forgotten  to  inform  the  archi- 
tect; while  the  architect  is  always  glad  to  furnish  all  the 
assistance  in  his  power,  knowing  that  a  little  time  spent  in 
promoting  the  thorough  comprehension  by  all  parties  of  the 
structure  indicated  in  the  drawings  will  enable  him  to  do  his 


IIO  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

work  with  much  more  satisfaction  to  himself,  as  well  as  to  his 
employer. 

In  regard  to  the  contracts,  the  question  always  arises,  whether 
the  whole  work  shall  be  entrusted  to  one  man,  or  two  or  more 

separate  contracts  made ;  and  it  is  not  always  easy  to 
Contractors        r         SJ.      -nt.  *.-        r        •         11^-1.  i 

answer  it.     The  practice  of  various  localities  has  much 

to  do  with  the  matter.  In  some  places  it  is  rare  for  mechanics  to 
make  sub-contracts,  and  therefore  each  trade  must  be  dealt  with 
separately,  while  in  others  the  best  contractors  prefer  to  have  the 
sole  control  of  their  buildings,  and  endeavor  to  keep  the  work 
entirely  in  their  hands. 

Where  a  building  must  be  speedily  completed,  it  is  generally 
easier  to  attain  that  object  by  putting  the  whole  contract  into  the 
hands  of  one  man.  Two  contractors,  responsible  only  to  the 
owner,  and  jealous  or  indifferent  in  regard  to  each  other's  inter- 
ests, always  charge  each  other  with  the  responsibility  for  the 
delays  which  usually  occur  under  such  circumstances,  and  the 
owner  finds  it  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  either  to  enforce  his 
contract  as  to  time  of  completion,  or  to  collect  indemnity  for  any 
delay  without  doing  injustice.  Where,  however,  the  time  is  not 
restricted  to  the  shortest  possible  space,  most  architects  will  agree 
that  the  best  results  are  obtained  by  making  at  least  four  separate 
agreements;  the  cellar-work  and  grading  forming  the  subject  of 
one;  the  carpenter-work,  including  painting  and  glazing,  of  a 
second ;  the  brickwork  and  plastering  of  a  third ;  and  the  plumbing 
of  the  fourth.  It  is  often  desirable  to  make  a  fifth  agreement  for 
the  painting  and  glazing,  but  if  the  carpenter  is  trustworthy,  there 
is  generally  some  advantage  in  allowing  these  to  be  included  in 
his  contract. 

By  the  system  of  separate  contracts  better  work  is  usually  to 
be  obtained  in  each  branch,  and,  considering  its  quality,  at  a 
cheaper  rate,  although  speculative  builders  have  ways  of  making 
sub-contracts  at  prices  which  seem  incredibly  low  to  those  who  are 
not  familiar  with  the  difference  between  the  good  and  the  "jerry" 
style  of  work.  The  best  mechanics  always  prefer  to  treat  directly 
with  the  owner ;  they  are  in  this  way  sure  of  their  pay,  and  can 
therefore  afford  to  work  at  a  lower  rate;  while  the  owner  saves 
the  percentage  of  profit  which  the  principal  contractor  feels  him- 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  IXI 

self  entitled  to  charge  upon  the  tenders  made  to  him  by  his  sub- 
contractors. Whatever  mode  is  adopted,  too  much  care  cannot 
be  taken  to  have  the  plans  and  specifications  as  full  and  explicit  as 
possible.  If  these  are  what  they  should  be,  a  building  so  simple 
as  a  dwelling-house  can  be,  and  generally  is,  where  the  owner 
knows  his  own  mind  in  regard  to  the  kind  of  house  he  wishes,  and 
takes  the  trouble  to  see  that  the  plans  express  it,  carried  out  to 
completion  without  any  "extras"  whatever ;  generally  to  the  great 
surprise  of  the  proprietor,  who  is  sure  to  be  informed  by  volunteer 
counsellors  before  he  begins  operations  that  his  extra  bill  will 
inevitably  be  "at  least  as  large  as  the  contract  price;"  that  he 
"ought  to  restrict  the  architect  to  half  the  sum  that  he  intends  to 
spend,"  and  so  on.  As  an  example  of  what  is  desirable  in  such 
documents,  forms  of  specifications  and  contracts  are  subjoined, 
such  as  have  been  used,  with  the  necessary  variations,  for  a  con- 
siderable number  of  houses,  all  of  which  have  been  finished  com- 
plete at  the  contract  price,  without  a  dollar  of  extra  charge,  except 
in  case  of  unexpected  difficulties  of  ground,  or  unless  the  owner 
has  desired  to  make  alterations  as  the  work  went  on,  or  to  add  to 
the  contract  the  execution  of  some  parts  of  the  furniture,  as  man- 
tels, fixed  book-shelves,  seats,  and  the  like. 

Armed  with  such  instruments  as  these,  we  enter  upon  the 
execution  of  the  work.  We  have  made  separate  contracts  for  the 
cellar-work,  the  carpentry,  the  brickwork  and  plastering,  and  the 
plumbing,  and  have  also  selected  a  good  furnace,  and  arranged 
with  the  makers  to  put  in  the  requisite  pipes  and  registers  in  the 
best  manner  when  the  proper  time  comes,  under  a  guaranty  that 
the  apparatus  shall  heat  a  given  number  of  rooms  to  a  temperature 
of  70°  when  the  thermometer  outside  stands  at  o°,  without  taking 
air  from  the  cellar  or  any  other  part  of  the  house,  and  without 
regard  to  the  direction  of  the  wind. 

Occasionally,  the  heating  apparatus  is  included  in  the  prin- 
cipal contract,  but  this  is  most  unwise.  As  with  plumbing, 
the  work  to  be  done  is  so  difficult  for  any  one  but  an  expert 
to  understand  or  criticise,  and  the  difference  between  good  and 
inferior  work  is  so  great,  in  value,  even  more  than  in  cost,  that 
it  should  never  be  made  the  interest  of  any  man  to  get  it  done 
as  cheaply  as  possible.  Explanations  of  these  points  will  be 


112  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

given  further  on.  Meanwhile,  we  hasten  to  get  the  cellar  under 
way. 

Although  no  rock  appears  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  site 
selected  for  the  house,  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  will  be  found 
somewhere  in  the  excavation,  and  the  contract  with  the  cellar 
mason  provides  a  certain  price  which  shall  be  paid  for  whatever 
blasting  may  be  necessary,  stipulating  at  the  same  time  that  the 
rock  taken  out  shall  be  used  in  the  cellar  walls,  and  an  allowance 
made  for  it.  If  there  is  no  other  stone  to  be  had  near  at  hand,  the 
cost  of  taking  out  rock  from  the  cellar  is  fairly  offset  by  its  value 
for  walling  material.  The  occurrence  of  ledge  in  the  excavation 
will  usually  be  accompanied  by  small  springs,  but  it  would  be 
inexpedient  to  burden  the  contract  with  an  allowance  for  draining 
them  away  properly,  so,  if  they  occur,  the  operations  which  they 
may  render  necessary  will  be  best  treated  as  extra  work. 

The  contractor  and  the  superintendent  stake  out  the  ground 
together,  the  latter  checking  the  rectangularity  of  the  lines  by 

measuring  the  diagonals;  and  batter-boards  are  set 

Staking  Out  i      <         i  i       1        •       ^      1       1     r    ,  r 

up ;  and  a  bench-mark,  showing  the  level  of  the  top  of 

the  cellar  wall,  is  made  on  one  of  the  batter-boards.  The  house 
should  always  be  set  high  enough  to  give  good  cellar  windows, 
with  a  sufficient  fall  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  away  from  the 
building  on  all  sides.  Three  feet  distance  from  the  highest  point 
of  the  natural  surface  in  the  perimeter  of  the  building  to  the  top 
of  the  cellar  wall  is  none  too  much.  This  will  give  two  and  a 
half  feet  of  underpinning  all  around,  and  insure  a  light,  well- 
ventilated  cellar. 

The  excavation  is  required  to  be  eight  inches  wider  on  all  sides 
than  the  outer  line  of  the  walls,  in  order  that  the  latter  may  be 
carried  up  smooth  and  strong,  outside  as  well  as  inside.  The 
whole  is  laid  in  mortar  containing  equal  parts  of  lime 
Bunding  anc*  cement»  and  both  the  outer  and  inner  faces  are  to 
be  pointed  neatly.  The  trenches  are  to  be  dug  two 
feet  below  the  proposed  cellar  bottom,  and  eighteen  inches  of  dry 
stone  chips  are  first  put  in,  before  starting  the  cement  wall.  All 
this  is  expensive,  and  the  cellar  will  cost  in  this  way  at  least  twice 
as  much  as  if  constructed  in  the  usual  country  fashion ;  but  it  will 
be  more  than  ten  times  as  good,  and  nothing  short  of  this  fulfils 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  II3 

the  conditions  which  modern  ideas  regard  as  essential  to  a  whole- 
some dwelling. 

The  clear  height  of  the  cellar  should  be  eight  feet  in  the  smallest 
house  intended  for  winter  occupancy,  and  more  than  this  in  larger 
mansions,  in  order  to  give  sufficient  height  above  the  furnace  to 
allow  of  a  proper  ascent  in  the  tin  hot-air  pipes,  without  which  the 
heat  cannot  be  successfully  distributed  to  the  various  rooms.  This, 
with  the  two  feet  additional  below  the  cellar  bottom,  will  make  ten 
feet  of  stone-work,  one  and  one-half  feet  of  which  will  be  laid  dry, 
and  the  remainder  in  cement.  Whether  the  material  of  the  cellar 
wall  shall  be  brick  or  stone  may  depend  upon  the  local  custom. 
Hard  stone  makes  the  best  wall.  It  is  non-absorbent,  and  as  the 
frozen  earth  adheres  but  slightly  to  its  surface,  a  wall  built  of  it  is 
not  subject,  as  brickwork  is,  to  gradual  loosening  and  decay  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  Where  bricks  must  be  used,  they  should 
be  of  the  hardest  quality. 

The  first  operation  is  the  stripping  of  the  surface  loam  from 
the  whole  area  covered  by  the  building,  and  about  eight  feet 
additional  on  all  sides,  and  the  stacking  of  this  in  some  convenient 
place  for  use  in  the  subsequent  grading.  The  excavation  of  the 
cellar  then  proceeds  in  conformity  with  the  lines  given  by  the 
batter-boards.  As  the  top  of  the  wall  is  fixed  by  the  bench-mark 
at  3  feet  above  the  highest  point  of  the  ground,  and  the  clear 
height  of  the  cellar  is  8  feet,  the  main  part  of  the  excavation,  ex- 
clusive of  the  trenches  for  the  walls,  will  be  nowhere  more  than 
5%  feet  below  the  ground;  the  extra  3  inches  being  allowed  for 
the  thickness  of  the  concrete. 

We  have  chosen  our  site  well,  and  are  fortunate  enough  to  find 
no  rock  in  the  excavation,  and  no  wet  places  in  the  cellar  itself,  but 
in  the  trenches,  two  feet  or  so  below,  the  water  stands  in  several 
places.  This  is  an  indication  of  a  moisture  in  the  sub- 
soil, which  will  increase  after  spring  rains  so  as  to  fill  Si?8oii9 
the  trenches,  and  these  will  overflow  into  the  cellar 
unless  some  other  outlet  is  provided  for  the  water.  The  slope  of 
the  ground,  and  still  more  the  comparative  shallowness  of  the 
cellar,  make  this  a  simple  matter :  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  con- 
tinue the  trench  beyond  the  line  of  the  house,  giving  it  a  slight 
fall  to  some  point  where  the  descending  ground  will  allow  it  to 

8 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

reach  the  surface.  The  trench  may  be  filled  some  two  feet  deep 
with  loose  stones  or  broken  brick,  and  then  covered  with  straw 
and  loam,  or  a  pipe-drain  may  be  laid  through  it  (Fig.  83).  All 

the  water  that  collects  un- 
der the  walls  will  then  be 
immediately  drained  away, 
and,  no  matter  what  may 
be  the  level  of  the  ground- 
water  outside  the  house, 

Fig.  83  the  trench  with  its  outlet 

forms  a  barrier  which  will  prevent  the  moisture  from  ever  making 
its  appearance  above  the  cellar  floor  (Fig.  84).  It  is  true  that  in 
some  clayey  grounds,  especially  if  traversed  by  veins  of  sand, 
water  may  rise  through  the  cellar  bottom  in  some  places,  but  such 
soils  are  rare,  and  moisture  so  introduced  can  easily  be  carried  off 
by  small  "French  drains"  of  broken  stone,  or  lines  of  agricultural 
tiles,  leading  from  the  wet  spot  to  the  main  drain  under  the  walls, 
or,  still  better,  extending  from  wall  to  wall  across  the  place  to  be 
drained. 

Where  the  ground  is  very  soft  or  sandy,  the  outlet  drain  should 
be  laid  at  a  gentle  pitch,  in  order  that  the  current  toward  it  may 
not  be  swift  enough  to  scour  out  the  soil  beneath  the  foundations 
and  cause  settlement.  Some  architects,  for  fear  of  this,  prefer  to 
make  stone  or  tile  drains  entirely  outside  the  walls  (Fig.  85,  or 
Fig.  86),  but  this  is  somewhat  more  expensive,  as  the  excavation 
must  be  made  proportionally  larger,  while  the  former  method  is 
more  effectual  in  keeping  the  cellar 
walls  and  floor  dry,  and  if  carefully 
carried  out  should  be  no  more  liable 
to  cause  settlements  than  the  other. 
If  small  stones  are  used  under  the 
walls,  they  should  be  compacted  with 
a  rammer,  and  thus  form  an  incom-  —  "--J&PB* 
pressible  mass.  Fi&-  ^ 

The  building  of  the  masonry  upon  this  foundation  is  a  simple 
matter,  but  must  be  sharply  watched,  for  in  no  detail  of  construc- 
tion is  the  common  practice  so  vicious  as  in  the  laying  of  cellar 
walls.  In  stone  districts,  the  majority  of  houses  stand  upon  base- 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  85 


ments  built  with  blocks  of  the  most  irregular  shapes,  laid  "dry," 
that  is,  without  mortar,  and  depending  partly  for  support  upon 
the  earth  outside  of  them.  The  smoothest  face  of  the  stones  is 
inside,  while  the  ouside  presents  a  rag- 
ged, bristling  mass  of  projections ;  and 
to  improve  the  visible  face,  the  crevices 
between  the  stones  are  "chinked"  with 
small  chips,  and  the  joints  are  "pointed" 
by  rubbing  mortar  over  them  with  the 
point  of  a  trowel.  A  coat  of  whitewash 
completes  a  work  which,  while  it  is  new,  presents  on  the  inside 
precisely  the  same  aspect  as  the  best  sort  of  wall.  But  a  brief 
period  only  is  needed  to  make  its  defects  manifest.  Streams  of 
water,  after  heavy  rains,  pour  through  the  loose  structure,  fol- 
lowed by  rats,  which  burrow  down  next  the  outside  of  the  walls 
until  they  find  a  wide  joint  from  which  they  can  easily  push  out 
the  pointing  mortar  and  obtain  access  to  the  interior ;  and  little  by 
little  the  earth  washes  into  the  crevices  between  the  bank  and  the 
stone-work,  until  the  latter  yields  to  the  pressure,  presenting  the 
characteristic  inward  convexity  of  country  cellar-walls. 

Every  feature  of  these  constructions  must  be  avoided.  In 
place  of  a  dry  wall,  furnished  only  with  a  miserable  pointing  of 
mortar  on  the  inside,  the  whole  thickness  must  be  solidly  filled 
with  cement;  in  place  of  a  rough  outside  surface,  the  exterior 
must  be  the  smoothest  face,  that  water  may  not  collect  upon  pro- 
jections and  be  conducted  into  the  wall ;  instead  of  leaning  against 
the  bank,  the  masonry  must  stand  at  least  eight  inches  away  from 
it,  and  the  intervening  space  must  be  filled  with  porous  gravel  or 

sand,  in  order  that  the  subterranean 
water-courses  may  be  intercepted  and 
conducted  away  harmlessly  into  the 
drain  beneath;  while  all  the  details  of 
bonding  and  proper  jointing  of  the 
masonry  should  be  as  carefully  attended 
to  as  in  the  case  of  a  wall  above  ground. 
Further  details  on  these  points  have  been  given  in  Chapter  L,  and 
need  not  be  repeated  here. 

Without  assiduous  watching,  most  country  masons  lapse  con- 


H6  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

tinually  into  the  wretched  workmanship  which  has  become  ha- 
bitual to  them :  long  stones,  which  they  will  not  take  the  trouble 
to  break,  are  set  in  the  wall  with  a  fair  inner  face,  but  with  long 
"tails"  projecting  from  the  exterior  into  the  bank,  whereas  the 
reverse  would  be  the  preferable  way;  and  short  stones  are  simi- 
larly set,  leaving  a  cavity  on  the  outside  to  gather  water  and  con- 
duct it  into  the  wall.  As  the  earth  is  usually  filled  in  behind  the 
stone-work  as  fast  as  it  is  laid,  such  faults  are  not  generally  detect- 
ed until  heavy  rains  reveal  them,  too  late  to  apply  a  remedy ;  but 
something  may  be  ascertained  by  using  the  steel  rod  spoken  of  in 
Chapter  I.,  while  the  mortar  and  the  filling  outside  are  yet  soft. 
It  is  essential  that  the  material  next  the  wall  should  be  perma- 
nently porous.  If  sand  or  gravel  cannot  be  had, 
unsifted  coal-ashes  form  a  good  substitute,  and 
broken  bricks,  stone  or  slate  chips  may  be  used. 
The  underpinning,  or  portion  of  the  wall  above  ground,  is  very 
commonly  made  different  from  the  rest,  in  order  to  obtain  a 

smoother  face.  Long  slabs  of  split  granite  or  free- 
Underpinning  J  J  r  t.  '  •  «_A 

stone  are  often  used,  and  for  cheaper  work  an  eight- 
inch  brick  wall  is  sometimes  built  on  top  of  the  stone-work,  from 
the  grade  line  upward.  Of  these,  the  granite  underpinning  is 
much  the  best :  sandstone  and  brick  absorb  moisture  from  the 
ground,  as  well  as  from  snow  lying  against  them  in  winter,  and 
communicate  it  to  the  interior,  besides  being  themselves  subject  to 
exfoliation  and  decay  at  the  ground  line. 

Independent  of  appearance,  the  best  construction  is  to  carry 
the  cellar  wall  of  the  full  thickness  to  the  very  top,  trusting  to 
careful  "drawing"  of  the  joints  for  giving  the  exposed 
portions  a  satisfactory  finish.     Care  should  be  taken 
that  the  wall  is  not  thinned  at  the  top  (Fig.  87),  as  is 
very  commonly  done  in  country  work,  to  give  oppor- 
tunity for  the  vicious  form  of  floor  framing  by  which 
the  joists  are  set  flush  with  the  upper  surface  of  the 
sill,  their  lower  portion  hanging  down  inside.     What- 
ever the  thickness, — twelve  inches  for  brick,  sixteen, 
Fig.  87      eighteen,  or  twenty  for  stone,  according  to  the  charac- 
ter of  the  material, — it  should  continue  to  the  under  side  of  the 
sill,  leaving  only  the  necessary  places  for  inserting  the  girders,  and 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

levelling  off  the  top  carefully.  Frames  of  basement  windows 
should,  if  possible,  be  built  into  the  wall.  The  method  of  spiking 
them  to  the  under  side  of  the  sill,  leaving  large,  irregular  holes  in 
the  stone-work  for  their  reception,  is  objectionable,  as  the  subse- 
quent filling  up  is  apt  to  be  less  solid  than  the  surrounding 
masonry. 

While  the  wall  is  in  process  of  construction,  the  framing  of  the 
timber,  that  is,  the  cutting  into  lengths,  fitting  and  mortising,  will 
have  been  going  on.  Usually  this  is  done  upon  the  ground,  from 
material  selected  in  some  neighboring  yard,  as  near 
the  required  dimensions  as  may  be;  but  it  is  not  un- 
common for  contractors  to  procure  an  "ordered  frame/'  by  send- 
ing framing  plans  and  elevations,  with  a  proper  speicification,  to 
some  saw-mill  in  the  timber  region,  where  the  pieces  are  cut  from 
the  logs  of  the  exact  sizes  required.  One  or  two  establishments 
do  more  than  this,  and  ship  the  frame  ready  mortised  and  fitted  for 
putting  together,  including  when  desired  the  boarding,  shingles, 
clapboards,  doors,  windows,  and  other  simple  wood-work.  There 
is  an  economy  in  the  use  of  such  frames,  as  waste  is  avoided,  and 
more  perfect  timber  is  obtained,  but  the  yard  timber  is  usually 
better  seasoned,  and  some  contractors  think  that  the  time  spent  in 
overhauling  after  delivery  the  innumerable  pieces  of  an  ordered 
frame,  except  of  the  simplest  kind,  in  order  to  select  the  sticks  that 
are  needed,  quite  offsets  the  waste  and  extra  expense  of  framing 
from  yard  timber  in  the  usual  way. 

The  inspection  of  the  rough  lumber  is  not  difficult.  White 
pine,  spruce,  and  hemlock  are  the  woods  most  commonly  used. 
In  the  far  West,  cottonwood  is  sometimes  employed, 
and  redwood  is  the  ordinary  framing  timber  of  the 
Pacific  coast.  Of  these,  redwood  is  much  the  best, 
being  strong,  straight-grained,  obtainable  in  any  dimensions,  and 
less  subject  to  shrinkage  or  movement  than  any  other.  White 
pine  is  the  next  in  value,  for  similar  reasons.  Cottonwood  is  soft, 
and  shrinks  very  much.  Spruce  resembles  pine,  but  shrinks  more, 
and  is  apt  to  warp  and  twist  with  great  force  during  the  drying 
process,  and  to  "check,"  or  crack  open  near  the  middle  of  the  stick. 
The  dimensions  run  rather  small,  compared  with  white  pine  or 
the  enormous  sizes  of  redwood  lumber,  but  pieces  up  to  12"  x  12", 


Il8  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

and  25  or  30  feet  long  are  always  to  be  had,  and  wooden  dwelling- 
houses  rarely  require  anything  more.  Hemlock  is  a  harder  wood 
than  either  spruce  or  pine,  and  can  be  had  in  large  sizes,  but  its 
strength  is  injured  by  the  want  of  adhesion  between  its  annual 
rings,  which  disposes  the  timber  to  crack  very  badly  in  drying. 
The  hemlock  trees  are  very  tall,  and  their  swaying  in  the  forest 
often  "shakes"  or  separates  the  rings  of  the  heart-wood,  so  that 
when  sawn  into  scantlings  or  boards  the  interior  is  little  better  than 
a  mass  of  splinters.  Hard  pine,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
Georgia  pine,  is  much  used  in  city  buildings,  where  its  great  stiff- 
ness is  of  advantage  in  enabling  floors  of  wide  span  to  be  covered 
without  employing  timbers  of  inconvenient  size,  but  it  is  rarely 
necessary  in  country  houses  to  incur  the  additional  expense  of 
using  it  for  this  purpose,  although  it  is  employed  in  other  ways. 
It  is  a  very  good  timber,  though  shrinking  considerably  in  drying. 
The  principal  point  in  examining  the  lumber  will  be  to  ascertain 
whether  the  sizes  are  according  to  the  specifications,  for  which  a 
few  measurements  will  suffice.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
only  green  lumber  will  show  the  full  dimensions;  and  seasoning 
reduces  them  somewhat.  A  white-pine  plank  originally  cut  12 
inches  wide  will  when  dry  measure  about  11%  inches;  spruce, 
hemlock,  and  hard  pine  somewhat  less ;  cottonwood  will  shrink  a 
whole  inch  in  the  same  width,  while  redwood  scarcely  shows  any 
change ;  so  that  suitable  allowances  should  be  made  for  every  case. 
Crooked  and  "waney"  pieces  (see  Figs.  46,  47,  page  63)  should 
be  condemned,  as  well  as  those  affected  with  serious  shakes. 
Longitudinal  cracks  in  the  middle  of  a  thick  piece  of  spruce  need 
not  condemn  it :  they  are  almost  inevitable  if  the  timber  is  dry,  and 
do  not  detract  much  from  its  strength ;  but  if  they  occur  in  a  thin 
piece,  as  a  floor  joist,  and  extend  entirely  through  it,  they  consti- 
tute serious  defects.  Sticks  of  which  portions,  especially  at  the 
ends,  appear  livid  and  friable  should  be  totally  condemned.  They 
are  infected  with  dry-rot,  and  will  communicate  the  infection  to 
others.  Amputation  of  the  diseased  part  is  not  sufficient,  for  the 
threads  of  the  fungus  may  extend  a  long  distance  into  the  sound 
part  of  the  wood. 

The  first  timber  set  in  place  is  the  sill,  and  this  should  have  a 
thick  bed  of  soft  cement  mortar  prepared  for  it  by  the  mason,  and 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

be  hammered  firmly  down  into  it.  This  closes  up  the  crevice  be- 
tween the  top  of  the  stone-work  and  the  timber,  through  which,  in 
badly  built  houses,  much  cold  air  finds  its  way  into  the 
hollow  floors.  For  additional  protection,  after  the 
adjustment  which  is  generally  necessary  to  get  the  sill 
into  position  is  over,  it  is  best  to  point  up  with  similar  mortar 
along  its  outer  edge  (Fig.  88).  The  inside  might  be  similarly 
treated,  but  this  would  interfere  with  the 
still  more  effectual  process  of  lining  with 
bricks  and  mortar,  as  described  below.  It 
is  now  usual  to  make  the  sill  of  pine  or 
spruce,  like  the  other  portions  of  the 
frame.  Our  forefathers,  who  had  no  fur- 
naces, set  their  dwellings  very  low,  and 
banked  them  up  with  earth  in  winter  so  as 
to  cover  the  lower  portions  of  the  wood- 
work, in  order  to  keep  the  cold  air  from  the  cellar  and  the  floors ; 
and  they  found  chestnut  or  cedar  to  be  the  only  material  which 
would  resist  dry-rot  under  such  circumstances.  We,  however, 
prefer  high,  light  cellars,  with  cement  walls,  kept  dry  by  furnaces, 
and  little  dampness  reaches  the  sills,  but  there  is,  as  in  all  cases 
where  wood  comes  in  contact  with  masonry,  a  possibility  of  its 
being  affected  by  moisture  in  the  pores  of  the  stone  and  mortar,  so 
that  it  is  best  to  provide  a  repellent  coating  by  painting  the  sill  on 
the  under  side.  The  other  sides  should  be  left  untouched,  so  as 
not  to  impede  the  drying  action  of  the  air.  The  ends  of  girders, 
also,  where  the  enter  the  wall,  may  be  similarly  painted. 

In  most  cases,  the  sill  is  the  subject  of  more  notching,  mortis- 
ing, and  cutting  than  any  other  timber  in  the  building,  and  must 
be  of  sufficient  dimensions  to  allow  for 
this.  Six  by  six  inches  is  a  common  size, 
or  six  by  eight,  where 
the  basement  openings 
are  large,  or  there  is 
danger  of  decay  affect- 
ing the  under  side.  The 


Fig.  89 


Fig.  90 


angles  are  halved  together  (Fig.  89),  and  pinned  or  strongly 
spiked.     Many  builders  secure  the  sill  to  the  foundation-walls  by 


120 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


means  of  vertical  bolts,  about  two  feet  long,  built  for  the  greater 
part  of  their  length  into  the  walls,  at  intervals  of  eight  or  ten  feet. 
Corresponding  holes  are  bored  in  the  sill,  and 
this  is  slipped  over  the  bolts,  and  secured  by 
nuts  and  washers.  With  light  structures  in 
exposed  situations  this  forms  a  valuable  safe- 
guard against  storms. 

Into  the  sill  the  floor  beams  are  framed 
in  various  ways.  A  very  common  and  bad 
mode  is  to  notch  it  some  three  inches  deep, 
cutting  a  corresponding  tenon  on  the  upper 
corner  of  the  beam,  so  that  the  upper  surface 
|  of  this,  when  in  place,  is  flush  with  the  top  of 

Fig.  91  the  sill,   the  lower  part  projecting  below. 

This  necessitates  the  thinning  off  of  the  upper  part  of  the  wall, 
which  would  otherwise  come  in  the  way  of  the  beams,  while  the 
tenon,  from  which  hangs  the  whole  weight  of  the  beam  and  its 
load,  often  splits  off  (Fig.  90).  The  beams  should,  instead  of 
this,  be  cut  so  as  to  bring  their  lower  edges  flush  with  the  bottom  of 
the  sill  (Fig.  91),  with  a  notch,  perhaps  two  inches  deep,  to  hold 
them  in  place.  Then  the  tenon  will  be  deep  enough  to  hold  safely, 
and  the  wall  can  be  made  of  the  full  thickness  to  the  very  top. 

Mortises  must  also  be 
made  for  the  corner  posts, 
and  for  those  to  be  set  at  the 
intersection  of  interior  par- 
titions with  the  outside 
walls.  Usually,  each  of  the 
"filling-in"  studs  (Fig  .92) 
has  also  its  appropriate  mor- 
tise, even  in  "balloon"  frarri- 
ing,  but  occasionally  a  cheap 
builder  contents  himself 
with  simply  setting  the  end 
of  the  stud  down  on  the  sill, 
and  securing  it  by  nails  Fig.  92 

driven  diagonally  through  the  foot.  Of  course,  the  position  of 
all  the  mortises  is  taken  from  the  framing  plans  and  elevations ; 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  I2i 

which  cannot  be  too  carefully  made,  or  the  execution  of  them  too 
closely  watched,  as  a  window,  a  chimney-opening,  or  a  stairway, 
once  framed  in  the  wrong  place,  cannot  be  altered  subsequently 
without  injury  to  the  solidity  of  the  building.  Workmen  are 
very  careless  about  such  matters ;  we  have  known  a  foreman  to  use 
a  framing  plan  traced  on  transparent  cloth  wrong  side  up,  and, 
regardless  of  the  careful  lettering  and  figures  on  the  right  side,  to 
cut  the  mortises  for  the  whole  side  of  a  house  by  scaling  with  a 
foot-rule  the  dimensions  as  seen  inverted  through  the  waxed  linen ; 
and  it  is  rare,  even  with  the  most  carefully  drawn  plans  before 
them,  for  framers  to  complete  the  mortising  of  a  sill  without  gross 
mistakes.  The  young  architect  or  superintendent  should,  there- 
fore, as  soon  as  the  sills  are  set  in  place,  verify  every  measurement. 
The  figures  on  the  plans  for  a  wooden  building  should  always  give 
the  distances  of  the  centres  of  openings  from  the  corners  of  the 
building  and  from  each  other ;  then  the  middle  point  between  the 
mortises  made  in  the  sill  for  the  studs  which  form  the  jambs  of 
the  opening  can  be  readily  found,  and  compared  directly  with  the 
figure.  If  the  plans  are  figured,  as  is  sometimes  done,  in  the  way 
appropriate  to  stone  or  brick  buildings,  by  giving  the  distances  to 
the  jambs  of  the  openings,  the  verification  is  much  more  difficult, 
since  the  rough  studs  are  always  set  two  inches  or  more  wider  on 
each  side  than  the  finished  opening  is  intended  to  be,  to  allow  for 
the  weights  and  lines  in  the  case  of  windows,  and  in  doors  to  ad- 
mit of  a  little  play  in  setting  the  frames. 

After  all  the  mortises  for  the  studs  have  been  examined,  and 
such  corrections  as  are  found  necessary  made  on  the  spot  under 
the  superintendent's  eye,  those  intended  for  the  floor  timbers  should 
undergo  an  equally  rigid  inspection.  The  openings  for  staircases 
and  chimneys  will  almost  always  be  found  misplaced,  or  made 
either  too  large  or  too  small.  The  latter  is  much  the  worse  fault : 
it  is  possible  to  fill  up  an  excess  of  space,  but  too  small  an  opening, 
which  can  only  be  made  available  by  cutting  away  and  weakening 
the  trimmer-beams,  or  by  constricting  the  flues,  is  a  serious  mis- 
fortune. When  these  tests  have  been  thoroughly  applied,  the 
beams  may  be  set  in  place.  In  most  cases  the  floor  rests  partly 
on  girders,  which  are  larger  sticks,  generally  from  6"  X  10"  to 
8"  X  12"  for  the  light  strains  of  country  houses,  running  through 


122 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


the  cellar  under  the  "fore-and-aft"  partitions,  or  those  which  carry 
the  floors  above,  and  supported  by  brick  piers  in  the  cellar. 

Occasionally,  brick  walls,  eight  inches  thick,  and  pierced  with 
arches  for  communication,  take  the  place  of  the  girders,  but  with- 
out any  material  advantage,  unless  they  are  carried  up  to  the  under 
side  of  the  floor  boards,  in  which  case  they  serve  to  keep  the  floor 
warm  and  diminish  the  danger  from  fire,  by  intercepting  the 
spaces  between  the  beams. 

If  girders  are  used,  special  attention  should  be  given  to  con- 
triving the  framing  of  the  beams  into  girders  and  sills  so  that  the 
shrinkage  shall  be  the  same  at  each  end.  This  point  is  almost 
always  neglected,  to  the  detriment  of  the  work,  which  begins,  a 

year  or  two  after  the  com- 
pletion of  the  building,  to 
undergo  settlements  and  de- 
formations, which,  instead 
of  being  inevitable,  as  is 
usually  supposed,  might 
easily  have  been  avoided  by 
a  little  care  at  the  com- 
mencement. If,  for  exam- 
ple (Fig.  93),  a  ten-inch 


Fig.  93 


beam  is  framed  at  one  end 


by  a  threef-inch  tenon  into  a  six-inch  sill,  all  flush  on  top,  and  at 
the  other  end  is  "sized"  down  one  inch,  without  mortising,  upon  a 
6  X  10  girder,  the  total  height  of  shrinkable  timber  between  the 
floor  boards  and  the  unyielding  masonry  will  be,  at  the  sill  end,  6 
inches,  and  at  the  other  end  10  +  9=19  inches.  Now  a  six-inch 
timber  will  shrink  perhaps  *4  of  an  incn  m  drying,  while  at  the 
same  rate,  19  inches  will  shrink  some  £4  °f  an  incn>  and  after  a 
year's  seasoning  the  inner  ends  of  the  beams  will  thus  be  half  an 
inch  lower  than  the  outer,  and  the  floor  to  the  same  extent  out  of 
level,  cracking  the  plastering  of  the  walls  above,  distorting  the 
door  frames,  so  that  the  doors  no  longer  fit  their  places,  and  caus- 
ing ugly  dislocations  in  base-boards  and  wainscotings. 

To  avoid  these  evils,  an  equal  height  of  timber  should  be  left 
at  each  end  between  the  flooring  boards  and  the  masonry.  If  the 
proper  mode  of  framing  into  the  sill  is  adopted  (see  Fig.  91),  a 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


I23 


ten-inch  beam  will  have  a  six-inch  tenon  resting  upon  the  bottom 
of  the  notch,  with  four  inches  of  the  wood  of  the  sill  between  it 
and  the  cellar  wall ;  in  all,  ten  inches  of  wood.  We  need,  there- 
fore, ten  inches  of  wood,  and  no  more,  between  the  brick  piers  and 
the  floor  boards  at  the  other  end.  But  if  the  girder  is  ten  inches 
high,  this  will  furnish  the  whole,  with  none  to  spare  for  projection 
of  the  beam  above  it,  so  the  latter  must  be  framed  into  the  girder 
flush  with  its  top.  This  is  for  various  reasons  the  best  way  of 
framing  into  girders.  Not  only  is  it  advantageous  to  get  rid  of 
their  projection  below  the  cellar  ceiling,  but  the  circulation  between 
the  beams  is  effectually  cut  off.  If  the  girder  is  of  ample  strength, 
it  may  be  notched,  say  five  inches  deep,  to  receive  a  five-inch  tenon 


Fig.  94  Fig.  95 

on  the  beam  (Fig.  94),  but  the  best  mode,  preserving  most  effect- 
ually the  strength  both  of  girder  and  beam,  is  the  joint  with  "tenon 
and  tusk"  (Fig.  95),  by  which  the  cutting  is  brought  nearer  the 
neutral  axis  of  the  girder,  while  the  tusk  tenon  allows  the  joint  to 
be  bored  and  pinned  from  above. 

As  it  would  be  difficult  to  lay  heavy  timbers  on  a  row  of  iso- 
lated piers  without  overturning  them,  the  girders  are  generally 
held  in  place  by  shores  set  beneath  them  until  the  floor  beams  are 
all  on,  or  sometimes  even  longer ;  and  the  piers  are  then  built  up 
beneath  them.  These  should  never  be  less  than  12 "  X  12",  of 
hard  brick,  laid  in  cement  mortar.  Piers  8"  X  8",  as  often  seen, 
soon  bend,  while  those  of  soft  or  "pier"  brick  are  liable  to  be  worn 
and  kicked  away  at  the  foot.  The  proper  spacing  for  piers  de- 
pends on  the  size  of  the  girders,  and  the  load  upon  them,  but  should 
not  be  over  8  feet,  for  fear  of  deflection,  even  with  strong  timbers. 

In  the  Eastern  states,  the  next  step  always  is  to  lay  an  under- 
floor  of  planed  hemlock  or  spruce  boards,  over  which  the  men  move 
freely,  while  it  forms  a  roof  to  the  cellar,  which  can 
immediately  be  used  for  storage  of  tools  and  mate- 
rials. Whether  this  is  done  or  not,  after  the  floor  is  made  prac- 
ticable for  the  passage  of  workmen  across  it  the  large  posts  should 


Under-Floor 


124 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


be  set  up  at  the  angles,  and  at  the  intersection  of  interior  partitions 
with  the  outside  walls.  These  should  be  4"  X  8",  at  least,  even 
in  a  "balloon"  frame,  not  so  much  for  strength  as 
to  give  good  nailings  for  the  angles  of  interior 
furrings,  wainscot  and  base-boards  (Fig.  96). 

The  subsequent  steps  depend  upon  the  mode  of 
construction  adopted, — whether  a  "balloon' '  or  a 
"braced"  frame  is  specified ;  and  it  is  of  importance 
to  the  young  architect  to  understand  thoroughly 
the  nature  and  advantages  of  each. 

Supposing  a  "braced"  or  "old-fashioned"  frame  to  be  called 
for,  the  next  step  after  setting  the  corner  posts  firmly 
into  their  mortises  will  be  to  secure  them  in  their  up- 
right position  by  means  of  the  braces  (Fig.  97),  which  have  been 


Fig.  97 

previously  fitted  to  mortises  cut  in  the  sill  and  post,  and  on  being 
inserted  and  a  hard-wood  pin  or  trenail  driven  through  the  hole, 
hold  the  post  fast.  The  shape  of  the  tenons  is  shown  in  Figure  98. 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


125 


Girts 


While  setting  and  bracing  the  corner  posts,  which  always  ex- 
tend the  whole  height  from  the  sill  to  the  plate  supporting  the  roof, 
the  girts  (G  and  D  G,  Fig  97),  or  the  horizontal  timbers  which  tie 
the  frame  at  each  floor-level,  must  be  put  in  place.  In 
a  simple  rectangular  frame,  like  the  one  shown  on  the 
drawing,  two  of  these  run  parallel  to  the  floor  beams,  and  are  for 
convenience  generally  set  at  the  same  level  with  them.  The  other 
two,  marked  D  G  in  the  figure,  cross  the  ends  of  the  beams,  and 
are  utilized  to  sup- 
port them.  If  it  were 
possible  to  continue 
the  girts  all  around  at 
the  same  level,  the 
beams  might  with 
advantage  be  framed 
with  tenon  and  tusk 
into  those  which  run 
transversely  to  them, 
in  the  same  manner 
as  into  the  girders  in 
the  first  floor,  but  as 
the  tenons  by  which 
the  girts  are  framed 
into  the  posts  would,  lS-  9 

if  these  were  set  at  the  same  level,  intersect  and  cut  each  other  off, 
it  is  necessary  to  place  one  pair  entirely  below  the  others.  The 
latter  are  called  the  "dropped  girts,"  and  are  generally  arranged 
so  that  the  floor-beams  may  be  notched  or  "sized"  one  or  two 
inches  down  upon  them.  (Fig.  99.) 

The  proper  joint  for  posts  and  girts  is  shown  in  Figure  100. 
After  setting  these  and  pinning  them  securely,  a  second  set  of 
braces  should  be  put  in  to  tie  the  angle  between  them  and  the  posts, 
as  shown  in  Figure  97,  using  the  same  form  of  mortise  and  tenon 
as  before.  A  third  set  is  then  placed  in  the  angles  between  the 
posts  and  the  upper  side  of  the  girts.  All  these  pieces  are  accu- 
rately cut  and  fitted  before  any  of  the  work  is  set  up,  so  that  when 
inserted  in  their  mortises,  and  the  pins  driven  home,  the  posts  are 
drawn  into  their  proper  position,  exactly  at  right  angles  with  the 


126 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


girts,  notwithstanding  the  bending  or  twisting  which  the  heat  of 
the  sun  often  causes  in  them  when  first  set  up ;  and  are  thus  pre- 
pared to  receive  the  plate,  which  will  not  fit  unless  the  posts  are 

accurately  parallel. 
The  angles  of  the 
plates  are  halved  to- 
gether and  mortised 
entirely  through,  so 
as  to  receive  a  long 
tenon  left  on  top  of 
the  posts;  and  to 

rtvp                — ^.ft^^^n  facilitate  this,  as  well 
as  to  give  a  certain 
lateral  stiffness  to  re- 
-— "• -»»  sist  the  thrust  of  the 


Fig.  99 


Plate 


rafters,  it  is  common 
to  make  the  plate 
4"  X  6"  or  4"  X  8", 
and  lay  it  flatways.  If  the  roof  is  to  have  gables,  a  somewhat 
simple  construction  is  used,  the  plate  which  receives  the  rafters 
first  being  framed  on  top  of  the  posts,  while  the  gable 
is  supported  by  a  sort  of  dropped  girt,  tenoned  into 
the  posts  below  the  plate  proper.  The  angles  of  posts  and  plate 
may  finally  be  braced,  making  a  strong  and  rigid  skeleton,  as 
shown  in  Figure  97,  upon  which  the  rafters  can  be  set  at  leisure, 
and  the  framework  of  the  side  completed  with  "filling-in"  studs, 
set  at  a  suitable  distance  for  nailing  the  laths  in- 
side, and  the  clapboards  or  other  covering  outside. 
(Fig.  101.) 

The  principle  of  the  balloon  frame  is  totally 
different,  and  although  it  may  be,  as 
is  claimed  for  it,  more  philosophical, 
it  is  far  inferior  to  the  braced  frame 
in  many  important  respects. 

If  balloon  framing  were  specified  for  our 
building,  the  next  step  after  setting  the  corner  posts  would  be  to 
secure  them  temporarily  in  place  by  means  of  "stay-laths,"  or 
pieces  of  board  nailed  diagonally  to  post  and  sill.  The  "filling-in" 


Frames 


Flg*  I0° 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


127 


7 


JJ II 


studs  would  then  be  set  all  around  the  building,  each  stud  in  this 

stystem  extending  the  whole  height  from  sill  to  plate.     The  best 

carpenters  mortise  the  feet  of 

the  studs   into  the  sill,  but 

this    is    frequently    omitted, 

nails    being    simply    driven 

diagonally  through.     No  at- 

tempt  is   made   to   cut   the 

pieces  to  the  right  length,  and 

their  upper  ends  present  for 

a    time   an    appearance   like 

Figure  102.     To  straighten 

them  boards  are  temporarily 

nailed  on  outside,  and  more 

"stay-laths"  brace  the  studs 

inward  to  the  floor.     As  soon  Fig.  101 

as  the  building  is  so  far  advanced  as  to  admit  of  climbing  safely  to 

the  top  of  the  studs,  a  line  is  marked  with  a  chalked  string  at  the 

proper  height  for  the  underside  of  the  plate,  and  the  studs  are  cut 

off  at  that  level.     If  any  prove  too  short,  an  additional  piece  is  set 

on  top,  and  "fished"  by  nailing  a  bit  of  board  on  each  side.      (Fig. 

103.)     When  all  are  brought  to  the  line,  a  2"  X  4"  or  2"  X  6" 

timber  of  random  length  is  laid  on  top,  and  spikes  driven  through 

it  into  the  top  of  each  stud.  Other 
similar  sticks  are  laid  in  the  same 
manner  until  the  circuit  of  the 
building  is  completed,  when  a  sec- 
ond row  is  laid  on  top  of  the  first, 
breaking  joint  with  them,  and 
overlapping  at  the  angles.  (Fig. 
104.) 

This  operation  brings  the  studs 
to  a  vertical  and  parallel  position, 
but  provision  is  needed  for  sup- 
porting  the  floor-beams.  As  be- 
fore,  no  notching  or  mortising  is 

done  before  setting  up  the  frame,  but  when  all  the  studs  are  in 

place,  the  chalked  string  is  again  brought  into  requisition  to  mark 


I02 


128  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

upon  them  two  lines,  4  inches  apart,  at  such  a  height  that  the  upper 
one  will  be  an  inch  above  the  proposed  level  of  the  underside  of 
the  floor  beams.  Each  stud  is  then  notched  one  inch  deep 
between  the  lines,  and  a  "ledger-board"  or  "false  girt/' 
consisting  of  a  strip  of  board  an  inch  thick  and  4  inches 
wide,  is  inserted  and  nailed  in  place.  (Fig.  105.) 

This  gives  a  support  which  is 
strong  enough  for  the  work  required 
of  it,  but  excessively  slender  in  ap- 
pearance, and  liable,  if  fire  should  get 
Fig.  103  into  the  spaces  between  the  studs,  to  Fis-  I04 

be  quickly  burned  off,  perhaps  letting  the  floors  fall. 

The  bracing  of  the  angles,  which  forms  an  important  part  of 
the  old-fashioned  framing,  is  entirely  omitted  by  most  carpenters 
in  setting  balloon  frames,  so  that  nothing  but  the  resistance  of  a 
few  nails  prevents  the  building,  as  the  outside  boarding  shrinks, 
from  leaning  gradually  in  one  direction  or  another,  according  to 
the  prevailing  winds.  (Fig.  106.)  This  may,  however,  be  pre- 
vented by  what  is  called  long  bracing  (Fig.  107), 
19  consisting  of  stout  strips  set  flatways  their  whole 
depth  into  notches  cut  in  the  studs  to  receive  them.  The  notches 
are  made  either  on  the  outside  or  inside  of  the  studs,  but  better 
bracing  can  be  had  by  placing  them  outside.  A  spike  is  driven 
through  the  braces  into  each  stud,  and  the  angles  are  thus  very 
,*ji  strongly  tied,  but  at  the  expense  of  strength  in 

the  vertical  studding. 
"Bl ""  By  these  very  different  modes  the  balloon 


a 


Fig.  105  Fi*'  Io6 


and  the  braced  framing  accomplish  the  same  result,  the  construc- 
tion of  a  timber  skeleton  bounded  by  sill,  plate  and  corner  posts, 
and  included,  with  all  bracings,  tenons  and  fastenings,  between 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


129 


two  planes,  4  or  5  inches  apart,  as  the  case  may  be,  so  that  laths 
can  be  nailed  uniformly  all  over  the  inner  surface,  and  boards  over 
the  outside.  All  the  subsequent  steps,  until  the  completion  of  the 
building,  are  the  same  for  either  mode  of  construction.  The  de- 
sign of  the  edifice  is,  however,  somewhat  dependent  upon  the  mode 
employed.  In  both  cases,  heavy  studs  are  used  to  form  the  sides 
of  window  and  door  openings,  in  order  to  give  rigid  support  to 
the  casings,  and,  as  in  balloon  framing  all  the  studs,  large  and 
small,  extend  the  whole  height  of  the  building,  it  is  quite  desirable 
to  place  the  windows  in  the  different  stories  vertically  over  each 
other,  so  that  one  pair  of  "window  studs"  may  serve  for  two  open- 
ings; and  any  variation  from  this  direct  superposition  involves 
expense  or  weakening  of  the  por- 
tion of  the  structure  involved. 
With  a  braced  frame,  the  main 
posts  only  extend  to  the  plate,  all 
the  filling-in  studs,  large  and 
small,  terminating  at  the  girts; 
so  that  the  studding  of  one  story 
is  completely  independent  of  that 
above  or  below;  an  important 
consideration  where  any  pictur- 
esque irregularity  of  fenestration 
is  to  be  attempted. 

As  soon  as  the  studding  of  FiS-  I07 

the  walls  is  in  place,  the  outside  boarding  is  begun.  Hemlock  or 
inferior  spruce  is  used  for  this  purpose,  and  no  great 
care  is  taken  to  lay  the  joints  close,  but  the  boards 
must  be  mill-planed  on  one  side  to  reduce  them  to  an  even  thick- 
ness, or  the  subsequent  shingling  or  clapboards  will  not  lie  evenly. 
While  this  is  going  on,  the  beams  of  the  second  floor  are  to  be  set. 
As  it  rarely  happens  that  the  beams  extend  in  one  span  from  the 
girts  in  one  wall  to  those  opposite,  an  intermediate  support  must  be 
provided  for  them,  consisting  generally  of  the  head  of  some  interior 
partition,  on  which  their  inner  ends  are  notched  or  "sized"  down, 
just  as  their  outer  ends  are  upon  the  dropped  girts.  As  the  3"  X3" 
or  3"  X  4"  piece  which  forms  the  partition-head  is  capable  of 
withstanding  a  considerable  cross-strain,  it  is  unnecessary  to  set 

9 


130 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


all  the  studs  under  it  at  first,  and  isolated  ones  are  usually  put  in, 
some  3  or  4  feet  apart,  in  order  to  allow  free  passing  between 
them.  The  second-floor  beams  can  then  be  immediately  laid  in 
place,  and  another  partition  in  the  story  above,  set  in  the  same 
way,  serves  for  supporting  the  third  floor. 

The  notching  or  "sizing"  of  all  beams  upon  their  horizontal 
supports  is  made  necessary  by  their  inequality  in  size.     Ordinary 

,...-...0.....|...|,..- |...y..|..      timbers  often  vary  one-fourth  to 

T- — I — I — I — I — 1~4 — I — 1-*    one-half  an  inch  from  their  speci- 

•  *  *    fied  dimensions,  but  by  notching 

Flg*  them  to  a  uniform  distance  from 

the  top,  they  will,  when  laid  in  place,  have  their  upper  sides  level 

ready  to  receive  the  floor.     (Fig.  108.)     The  undersides  will  be 

uneven,  but  the  subsequent  cross-furring  will  conceal  this. 

It  is  very  common,  but  not  judicious,  to  set  the  studs  of  all 

interior  partitions  either  on  the  under-floor  or  on  a  horizontal  piece 

resting  upon  the  beams.    If  the  inner  ends  of  a  tier 

How  to  Provide  of  floor-beams  are  supported,  as  is  usually  the  case, 
against  Unequal,  .  .  ,.  -  j.t_  t  Ai 

Settlement         by  a  partition  extending  from  the  basement,  these 

ends  will  be  subject  to  a  settlement  equivalent  to  the 
sum  of  the  shrinkage  of  all  the  horizontal  pieces  interposed  be- 
tween the  underside  of  the  beams  in  question  and  the  immovable 
supports  at  the  bottom  of  the  partition ;  in  this  instance,  the  brick 
piers  in  the  basement.  If  the  partition  studs  stand  on  the  beams, 
with  a  2"  X  4"  "sole"  interposed,  a  partition  extending  from  the 
cellar  piers  to  the  floor  of  the  third  story  will  be  interrupted  by 
the  basement  girder,  first-story  beams,  sole  of  partition,  cap  of  the 
same,  second-story  beams,  and  another  sole  and  cap ;  in  all,  from 
30  to  40  inches  of  horizontal  timber,  the  shrinkage  of  which  in 
such  a  position  would  be  from  one  to  two  inches.  The  outer  ends 
of  the  same  third-story  beams  will  rest  upon  the  framing  of  the 
outside  wall,  which  would  with  a  balloon  frame,  in  which  the  studs 
are  continuous,  present  only  a  six-inch  sill  and  one  four-inch  led- 
ger-board of  shrinkable  timber  between  them  and  the  immovable 
basement  wall.  The  shrinkage  of  this  10  inches  of  horizontal 
wood  would  amount  to  less  than  half  an  inch,  so  that  when  the 
wood-work  became  fully  dried,  which  in  our  furnace-heated  houses 
is  in  a  year  or  two,  the  inner  ends  of  the  third-story  beams  would 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

be  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  below  their  outer  ends.  Such  a 
difference  in  level  is  quite  sufficient  to  cause  cracking  of  the  plas- 
tered walls  in  the  second  and  third  stories,  and  to  distort  the  open- 
ings in  the  cross  partitions  (Fig.  109),  so  as  to  make  the  doors  fit 
badly,  and  "bind,"  or  require  to  be  trimmed,  or  the  hinges  "set  up" 
to  adapt  them  to  the  altered  shape. 

These  phenomena,  which  every  one  has  observed  in  city  as  well 
as  country  houses,  depend  solely  upon  the  unequal  shrinkage  and 
consequent  settlement  of  the  two  vertical  structures  by  which  the 
opposite  ends  of  the  beams  are  supported,  and  can  be  avoided  by 
any  device  which  shall  make  the  settlement  the  same  at  both  ends. 
In  wooden  houses  this  may 
be  approximately  accom- 
plished by  setting  the  studs, 
— not  on  the  floor  or  on  the 
beams,  but  between  the  latter 
and  on  the  same  support,  so 
that  the  beams  cease  to  form 
a  part  of  the  vertical  frame. 
The  studs  of  the  first-story 
partitions  will  then  stand  on 
the  girders,  extending  thence 
to  the  underside  of  the  sec-  Fis-  I09 

ond-story  beams  which  rest  upon  their  cap.  The  studs  of  the 
second-story  partitions  again,  instead  of  standing  on  the  floor,  or 
on  a  sole-piece,  will  extend  down  between  the  beams  to  the  cap  of 
the  first-story  partition  (Fig.  no).  By  this  arrangement  there 
will  be,  supposing  the  height  of  the  girder  to  be  10  inches,  and 
that  of  the  partition  caps  3  inches,  16  inches  only  of  shrinkable 
wood  in  the  partitions  between  the  basement  piers  and  settlement 
the  underside  of  the  third-story  beams,  and  the  differ-  in  Balloon 
ence  of  level  after  drying  between  their  inner  and  Frames 
their  outer  ends,  supposing  these  to  be  supported  by  balloon  frame, 
would  be  about  y%  of  an  inch  instead  of  three  or  four  times  that 
amount,  as  in  the  case  previously  described. 

It  is  desirable  to  avoid  even  this  inequality,  if  possible,  and  as 
it  is  evidently  impracticable  to  diminish  the  amount  of  horizontal 
timber,  and  consequent  settlement,  in  the  interior  partitions,  it  will 


132 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


be  advantageous  to  increase  that  in  the  outer  walls.  As  the  height 
of  the  sill  is  fixed,  the  aggregate  shrinkage  can  only  be  increased 
by  adding  to  the  width  of  the  horizontal  timbers  on  which  the 
upper  beams  rest.  With  a  balloon  frame  nothing  can  be  gained 
in  this  way,  since  the  ledger-board  must  be 
nailed  to  the  studs,  and  the  free  portion  be- 
tween the  nails  and  the  upper  edge  of  the 
;~v  board  is  alone  capable  of  affecting  the  beams 
Fig.  no  by  its  shrinkage;  and  with  such  frames  an 

unequal  settlement  is  practically  inevitable.  The  braced  frame 
Settlement  however,  sustains  the  beams  upon  a  wide  girt,  resting 
in  Braced  on  the  corner  posts  by  its  lower  edge,  so  that  the 
whole  effect  of  the  shrinkage  tends  to  make  the  upper 
edge  descend,  and  with  it  the  beams  which  may  rest  upon  it. 

A  braced  frame,  therefore,  with  a  six-inch  sill  and  a  ten-inch 
dropped-girt,  upon  which  the  beams  of  the  third  story  are  "sized" 
down  in  the  same  manner  as  on  the  partition-heads  supporting  their 
other  ends,  will  give  sixteen  inches  in  vertical  height  of  shrinkable 
timber,  and,  supposing  the  girders  and  partition-heads  to  be  as 
before,  the  settlement  at  both  ends  of  the  beams  will  be  the  same, 
and  the  floor  will  remain  perfectly  level,  the  door-frames  square, 
and  the  plaster  probably  unbroken,  for  an  indefinite  period. 

The  partitions  which  extend  from  the  first  floor  through  two 
or  more  stories,  even  though  no  beams  rest  upon  them,  as  in  the 
case  of  those  running  parallel  with  the  beams,  should  be  set  in  the 
same  way,  the  studs  in  the  upper  story  resting  on  the  cap  of  the 
partition  below ;  not  for  the  sake  of  lessening  the  shrinkage,  which 
would  in  this  case  do  no  harm,  but  to  relieve  the  i 
floor-beams  from  the  weight  of  the  partition  by 
making  the  support  continuous  from  the  base- 
ment girder  upward;  and  partitions  enclosing 
stairs  should  be  similarly  constructed. 
Besides  these,  there  will  usually  be 
some  partitions,  especially  in  the  second  Fig.  in 

story,  which  have  no  corresponding  partition  below.  These  must 
be  supported  on  the  beams.  The  simplest  way  of  setting  them  is 
to  lay  the  sole  directly  upon  the  under-flooring,  where  its  position 
can  be  accurately  marked ;  and  the  sole  may  with  advantage 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


133 


or  5^4  inches  wide,  so  as  to  project  beyond  the  stud  on  each  side 
by  an  amount  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  plastering.  In  the 
subsequent  finishing  this  projection  will  be  of  great  service  for 
keeping  the  base-boards  firmly  in  their  proper  position,  and  for 
nailing  them  at  the  lower  edge  if  required 
(Fig.  in).  Where  the  partition  runs 
parallel  with  the  beams,  it  is  common  to 
provide  in  the  framing  plans  for  a  timber 
of  extra  size,  or  two  timbers  spiked  to- 
gether, under  it,  to  give  the  extra  support 
required.  A  better  way  is  to  set  two 
beams  equidistant  from  the  centre  line  of 
the  partition,  seven  or  eight  inches  apart 
from  centres,  instead  of  close  together  Flg*  II2 

(Fig.  112).  The  same  strength  will  be  obtained,  and  there  will 
be  opportunity  for  a  solid  nailing  at  the  ends  of  the  floor-boards 
that  abut  against  the  partition,  which  cannot  be  had 
by  the  other  method  (Fig.  113).  For  the  same  rea- 
son,  the  framing-plans  should  always  show  a  beam 
placed  close  against  outer  walls  and  partitions  extending  from 
below.  A  floor  where  the  ends  of  the  boards,  for  want  of  these 
precautions,  are  secured  only  to  the  thin  under-flooring  soon 
acquires  an  uneven  and  slovenly  look. 

The  first  studs  of  the  partitions  are  usually  set,  and  the  floors 
bridged,  before  the  roof  is  begun.     In  the  short  spans  usual  in 

country  houses,  this  construction 
is  a  matter  of  little  difficulty. 
Where  support  is  needed,  it  is  generally 
obtained  by  carrying  up  the  partitions 
which  extend  from  the  firm  foundation  in 
the  basement,  and  heavy  trusses  and  pur- 
lins a.re  rarely  necessary,  the  weight  being 
equally  distributed  over  all  the  rafters, 
Fig.  113  Hi  which  may  be  tied  with  "collars"  of  plank 

where  required.  At  the  same  time,  the  form  of  such  roofs  is  often 
very  complex,  and  the  framing-plans  should  be  carefully  and 
clearly  drawn.  Every  ridge,  valley  and  hip  must  be  marked  in 
plain  letters,  and  the  lengths  of  hip,  valley,  common  and  jack 


Roofs 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

rafters  should  be  calculated  and  written  on  the  drawings.  With- 
out these  precautions,  the  architect  is  very  likely,  during  the  fram- 
ing, to  find  a  hip  substituted  for  a  valley,  or  vice  versa;  and  not 
infrequently,  either  by  accident  or  design,  the  height  of  a  pictur- 
esque roof  will  be  materially  lessened  without  consulting  the 
designer,  who  does  not  discover  until  too  late  the  reason  why  its 
appearance  in  execution  is  so  disappointing. 

The  covering-in  of  the  building  gives  the  signal  for  a  multi- 
tude of  minor  operations,  the  principal  among  which  is  the  con- 
struction of  the  chimneys,  which  should  be  commenced 
at  the  earliest  practicable  moment,  in  order  to  avoid 
delay  in  finishing  the  roof.  The  bricks  furnished  for  this  work 
should  be  rigidly  inspected.  As  the  chimneys  in  frame  houses 
are  usually  plastered  outside  as  fast  as  built,  in  order 
to  lessen  the  danger  of  sparks  passing  through  the 
joints  of  the  masonry  among  the  furrings,  the  opportunity  for 
using  soft,  half-burnt  bricks  without  detection  is  unusually  favor- 
able, and  the  young  architect  should  look  sharply  to  see  that  none 
of  that  kind  are  allowed  to  be  delivered  on  the  ground.  For  the 
purpose  of  aiding  the  meaner  builders  to  impose  bad  materials 
upon  their  employers,  it  is  common  at  the  brick-yards  to  denomi- 
nate the  half-burnt  material  from  the  outside  of  the  kilns  "chim- 
ney brick,"  "pier  brick,"  or  "place  brick."  The  name,  however, 
does  not  change  the  quality,  and  any  work  containing  bricks  whose 
edges  can  be  crumbled  by  the  fingers  should  be  pulled  down  at 
once,  and  rebuilt  with  better  materials.  Unless  this  is  done,  no 
reliance  can  be  placed  upon  the  masonry ;  the  piers  are  liable  to  be 
broken  away  and  bend,  and  chimneys  may  crack  open  at  any 
moment  after  being  enclosed  by  furring. 

We  suppose  that  the  position  and  size  of  all  the  openings  made 
in  the  floors  for  the  passage  of  the  chimneys  have  been  carefully 
verified  long  before.  It  not,  this  should  be  done  without  delay. 
Masons  rarely  think  of  questioning  the  accuracy  of  the  carpenter's 
work,  and  whenever  they  find  an  opening  framed,  they  suspend 
plumb-lines  from  its  four  corners  and  commence  laying  bricks 
between  them;  and  to  the  endless  mistakes  made  by  the  inferior 
workmen  who  are  employed  in  framing  they  add  others  of  their 
own.  One  fertile  source  of  errors  is  a  want  of  some  common 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


135 


understanding  in  regard  to  the  system  of  figuring  plans.  Most 
architects,  unless  very  experienced,  figure  all  horizontal  dimen- 
sions in  wooden  buildings  from  the  nearest  surface  of  the  studs ; 
thus,  a  fireplace  in  the  middle  of  one  side  of  a  room  16'  long  in 
the  clear  would  generally  be  figured  as  8'  i"  from  the  inside  of 
the  studs  to  its  centre.  Nearly  all  framers,  however,  measure  to 
the  outside  face  of  outside  studding,  although  interior  dimensions 
are  taken  to  the  nearest  face ;  and  the  workman  will  probably  set 
his  trimmer-beams,  or  lay  out  his  chimeny,  by  measuring  the 
figured  distance  on  a  ten-foot  pole  thrust  between  the  studs  against 
the  outside  boarding,  the  point  thus  falling  four  inches  short  of 
the  place  intended;  and  the  mistake,  if  discovered,  is  very  likely 
to  be  rectified  by  shifting  the  chimney  over  bodily,  and  resting  it 
upon  the  trimmer-beam.  It  is  safest  in  any  case  to  figure  the 
openings  in  floors  two  or  three  inches  wider  on  the  framing-plans 
than  they  are  actually  intended  to  be.  This  gives  a  little  lee-way 
for  contingencies,  and  it  is  always  easy  to  fill  out  an  excess  of 
room  by  nailing  pieces  to  the  timbers,  while  the  cutting  away  of 
beams  to  gain  necessary  space  should  be  avoided. 

All  flue-doors,  ash-doors,  stove-rings  and  ventilating  registers 
should  be  marked  on  the  plans,  and  inserted  as  the  work  goes  on. 

If  left  for  subsequent  cutting  they 
are  sure  to  be  forgotten.  Rings  for 
furnace  smoke-pipes  should  never 
come  within  sixteen  inches  of  the 
cellar  ceiling.  All  flues  must  be 
closed  at  the  bottom,  and  kept  sep- 
arate to  the  top.  Bad  workmen 
g*  II4  often  leave  them  open  at  the  bottom 

into  the  ash-pit,  or,  where  two  flues  run  side  by  side,  omit  the 
partition,  or  "with,"  in  the  lower  part.  In  either  case  the  draught 
is  spoiled.  The  withs  should  be  four  inches  thick, 
and  at  least  once  in  every  eight  courses  in  ordinary 
chimneys  they  should  be  bonded  by  two  bricks  rough- 
ly mitred  with  the  stretchers  of  the  walls.  (Fig.  114.)  Without 
this  precaution,  which  it  is  not  easy  to  enforce,  the  with  forms  a 
mere  tongue  of  superposed  bricks,  standing  upright  in  the  rect- 
angular shaft  of  the  chimney,  and  held  in  place  only  by  the  feeble 


Flues 


•[36  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

adhesion  of  the  mortar,  so  that  it  not  unfrequently  loses  its  balance 
and  bends  over,  stopping  up  the  adjoining  flue.  Ties  of  tin  or 
hoop-iron  laid  in  the  joints  are  sometimes  used  to  sustain  the 
withs,  but  the  other  bond  is  better,  particularly  in  tall  chimneys, 
where  a  thorough  interlocking  of  the  withs  with  the  walls  adds 
very  greatly  to  the  strength  of  the  shaft. 

Stacks  of  irregular  plan  (Fig.  115),  can  be  better  bonded  than 
those  of  the  common  form,  and  are  much  stronger.  If  carried  up 
smooth  and  nearly  straight,  without  twisting  or  constriction  in  any 
part,  an  8"  X  8"  flue  is  ample  for  any  stove  or  ordinary 
hot-air  furnace,  and  is  sufficient  for  an  open  fireplace  of 
moderate  size ;  but  the  danger  of  some  obstruction  is  so  great  that 

it  is  prudent  to  provide  the 
latter  with  8"  X  12"  flues 
where  practicable. 

Fireplaces  are  usually 
roughly  formed  during  the 
construction  of  the  chimney, 
to  be  subsequently  lined  with 
soapstone  or  brick,  but  if  the 
latter  material  is  to  be  used,  it 
is  better  to  finish  the  whole  at 
once  and  cover  it  up  with 
boards  to  prevent  injury  dur- 
ing the  progress  of  the  work. 
FIg-  "5  By  this  method  there  will  be 

no  danger  of  settlements  and  open  joints  between  the  rough  work 


1 


Fireplaces 


Chimney-Bars 


and  the  lining,  through  which  sparks  may  reach  the 
space  behind  the  furrings.  Wrought-iron  chimney- 
bars  must  be  used  to  support  the  brick-work  above  each  fireplace 
opening.  Two  inches  by  half  an  inch  is  the  usual  size,  and  two 
bars  should  be  used.  The  whole  support  should  be 
given  by  the  bars,  without  any  assistancef rom  arches, 
which  are  liable  to  spread  and  split  the  masonry.  The  depth  and 
form  of  fireplaces  depend  on  the  use  to  which  they  are  to  be  put. 
Small  hard-coal  grates  are  often  set  with  only  a  four-inch  recess  in 
the  masonry,  the  front  of  the  grate  projecting  three  or  four  inches 
beyond  the  face  of  the  wall,  and  work  very  well  so  if  the  draught 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


137 


is  good,  but  eight  inches  is  better,  and  soft  coal  or  wood  need  at 
least  twelve  inches  depth.  The  "splay"  or  bevel  to  be  given  to  the 
sides  should  conform  to  that  of  the  grate,  if  one  is  to  be  subse- 
quently inserted,  and  as  they  are  made  with  various  angles,  the 


Fig.  116 

choice  should  be  made  before  the  fireplace  is 
begun.  If  this  has  not  been  done,  a  splay  of 
seven  and  a  half  in  twelve  does  very  well,  and 
will  fit  many  grates.  (Fig.  116.)  In  verti- 
cal section,  the  back  of  the  fireplace  should  be 
built  up  plumb  about  six  courses,  and  then  in- 
clined forward,  making  the  throat  of  the 
chimney  about  two  inches  wide  (Fig.  117), 
finishing  with  a  level  surface,  of  cut  bricks, 
about  six  inches  above  the  line  of  the  chimney 
bars.  By  this  narrowing  of  the  throat  the  hot  gases  are  concen- 
trated and  the  draught  much  improved,  while  the  level  surface  at 
the  foot  of  the  flue  checks  and  repels  any  downward  current,  in- 
stead of  deflecting  it  forward  into  the  room.  In  laying  out  the 
fireplaces,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  they  must  project  from 
the  general  surface  of  the  chimney  at  least  as  far  as  the  line  of  the 
plastering.  If  the  chimney  is  furred  with  2"  X  4"  studs,  set  flat- 
ways, and  one  inch  clear  of  the  masonry,  and  then  lathed  and 
plastered,  the  plaster  surface  will  be  four  inches  in  front  of  the 
brickwork  (Fig.  118),  and  if  the  facings  of  the  fireplace  are 


ZI7 


brought  out  to  this  point,  a  mantel  which  is  flat  on  the  back  can 
be  used.  Most  marble  mantels,  however,  and  some  wooden  ones, 
are  constructed  to  allow  of  a  further  projection  of  four  inches 
beyond  the  plaster  line  (Fig.  1 19),  so  that  a  choice  should  be  made 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


as  early  as  possible.  The  superintendent  must  watch  the  con- 
struction of  the  flues  assiduously,  as  the  only  means  of  making 
sure  that  they  are  smooth  and  uniform  in  size.  Whether  they 
shall  be  "pargeted,"  or  plastered  inside  with  mortar,  depends  upon 


Fig.  119 


I 


circumstances  as  well  as  on  local  custom.  There  is  some  danger 
that  the  pargeting  may  scale  off  and  fall  into  the  flue,  dragging 
with  it  the  mortar  from  the  joints  of  the  brickwork,  so  as  to  open 
a  passage  for  sparks,  and  for  this  reason  the  practice  is  forbidden 
in  some  places,  but  if  the  mortar  contains,  as  is  advisable,  half  as 
much  cement  as  lime,  and  the  brickwork  is  kept  wet,  pargeting 
may  be  safely  used,  and  certainly  assists  in  giving  smoothness  and 
continuity  of  surface  to  the  flue. 

In  regard  to  plastering  the  outside  of  the  chimney,  there  is  no 
difference  of  opinion,  and  where  it  is  to  be  subsequently  concealed 

by  furring,  the  superintendent  must  in- 
sist upon  its  being  thoroughly  covered 
from  the  basement  floor  to  the  under- 
side of  the  roof  boarding. 

The  "topping  out"  of  the  chimney, 
above  the  roof,  should  be  done  with 
mortar  containing  equal  parts  of  lime 
and  cement.  Unless  thus  made  water- 
proof, every  rain  will  saturate  the  mor- 
tar, dissolving  and  loosening  it  until  the 
V  whole  stack  begins  to  lean  toward  the 
windward  side,  and  then  speedily,  de- 
cays. For  the  same  reason  the  four 
upper  courses  should  be  laid  in  clear 
Fig.  120  cement,  unless  a  stone  or  iron  cap  is 

used.  Nothing  else  will  long  withstand  the  disintegrating  action 
of  rain,  added  to  that  of  the  acid  vapors  from  the  burning  fuel. 
No  overhanging  projection  in  the  shape  of  a  base  should  be  al- 
lowed where  the  chimney  leaves  the  roof.  ( (Fig.  120.)  In  the 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


139 


inevitable  settlement  of  the  whole  stack  the  upper  portion  will  be 
caught  upon  the  rafters,  and,  the  remainder  sinking  away  from  it, 
a  dangerous  seam  will  be  opened  just  above  the  boarding. 

Even  before  the  chimneys  are  started,  the  cross- furring  of  the 
ceilings  will  begin.  For  this  planed  strips  are  used  12  inches 
apart  from  centres,  two  inches  wide,  and  %  or  ij4  Furrin 
inches  thick,  the  latter  for  three  coat  plastering.  It 
is  of  great  importance  to  get  these  truly  level,  to  prevent  inequal- 
ities in  the  finished  ceiling.  Ordinary  carpenters  try  the  strips 
with  a  straight  edge  as  they  nail  them  to  the  beams,  hacking  away 
a  little  from  one  beam  and  filling  up  a  deficiency  in  another  by 
means  of  a  chip,  until  an  approximately  even  surface  is  obtained ; 
but  a  much  better  way  is  to  notch  all  the  beams  for  the  furring 
strips  before  putting  them  on, 
gauging  from  the  upper  side  in 
the  same  way  as  in  sizing  upon  the 
partition  boards  or  girts.  After 
cross-furring,  the  setting  of  the 
partitions  is  finished,  those  that 
need  it  are  trussed,  so  as  to  throw 
the  weight  upon  firm  points  of 
support,  and  small  trusses  are  put 
over  all  openings  in  the  partitions. 

The  trussing  of  partitions 
should  be  studied  beforehand,  and  indicated  on  the  framing  plans, 
so  that  doors  can  be  arranged  without  cutting  off  the  braces. 
Trusses  over  openings  should  be  framed  like  Figure  121.  The 
dimensions  and  position  of  all  the  doors  and  partitions  should  now 
be  thoroughly  verified.  No  dependence  whatever  can  be  placed 
on  the  care  of  workmen  in  these  respects,  and  the  proportions  of 
the  plan  are  very  likely  to  be  hopelessly  mangled  unless  a  rigid 
watch  is  kept.  The  door  openings  must  be  framed  about  5  inches 
wider  and  two  inches  higher  than  the  finished  door,  to  allow  of 
proper  blocking ;  and  the  distance  from  the  angles  of  the  room  to 
the  openings  must  be  verified  to  insure  symmetry,  if  that  is  in- 
tended ;  and  sufficient  space  should  be  allowed  for  the  architraves. 

After  all  is  made  correct,  the  partitions  may  be  bridged.     This 
is  often  done  by  nailing  in  short  horizontal  pieces  between  the 


Fig.  121 


140 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


Partftions 


^ 


Fig.  122 


studs,  a  process  which  has  its  use,  but  is  valueless  for  the  present 
purpose.  The  proper  way  is  to  cut  in  diagonal  pieces  (Fig.  122), 
reversing  the  direction  of  the  pieces  in  each  row.  The 
^na^  °Perati°n  will  be  to  try  the  partitions  on  each 
side  with  a  straight  edge,  and  correct  the  crooked 
studs  by  sawing  half  through  them  on  the  concave  side,  forcing 
them  into  place,  and  driving  wedges  into  the  incision.  The  chim- 
neys are  next  enclosed  with  furring,  consisting 
of  a  cage  of  studs,  supported  by  posts  at  the 
angles  of  the  breast.  These  furrings  should  be 
measured  to  see  that  they  are  accurately  placed 
in  the  room,  that  they  are  of  the  proper  dimen- 
sions, and  that  the  fireplace  comes  accurately  in 
the  middle  of  them;  such  details  being  little 
regarded  by  the  average  f  ramer.  Nothing  now 
remains  but  the  fixing  of  the  grounds  to  prepare  the  inside  of  the 
house  for  lathing  and  plastering.  Meanwhile,  however,  various 
other  mechanics  have  been  busy  inside  the  building,  and  the  work 
of  finishing  the  outside  has  gone  continuously  on.  Every  hot-air 
pipe,  gas,  drain  and  water-pipe,  bell-tube,  speaking-tube  and  elec- 
tric wire  which  is  not  intended  to  appear  outside  the  plastering 
must  be  fixed  in  place  during  the  short  interval  which 
elapses  between  the  completion  of  the  studding  and 
the  commencement  of  the  lathing.  If  the  plans  are  prepared  with 
any  care,  the  position  and  size  of  all  hot-air  pipes  will  be  indicated 
on  them,  but  so  much  thought  is  required  in  arranging  them  to 
the  best  advantage  that  the  superintendent  should  study  the  plans 
for  himself,  in  season  to  suggest  changes  if  circumstances  render 
them  desirable. 

The  proper  size  of  the  pipes  depends  upon  the  form  of  heating- 
apparatus  employed,  and  this  should  therefore  be  selected  as  early 
as  possible.  Most  persons  make  contracts  for  furnace,  pipes  and 
registers  complete,  but  if  the  pipes  are  put  in  separately  it  must  be 
remembered  that  heaters  with  small  radiating  surface,  like  most  of 
the  wrought-iron  furnaces,  deliver  air  at  a  very  high  temperature, 
but  can  deal  only  with  a  small  current,  and  therefore  work  better 
with  few  and  small  pipes  and  registers,  while  the  best  cast-iron 
furnaces,  as  well  as  a  few  forms  in  wrought-iron,  and  all  indirect 


Hot-Air  Pipes 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  !4! 

steam  and  hot-water  heating  apparatus,  possess  a  large  radiating 
surface,  and  therefore  warm  a  much  greater  volume  of  air  in  a 
given  time,  but  to  a  lower  temperature,  so  that  larger  pipes  are 
necessary  to  convey  an  adequate  supply  of  heat  to  the  rooms.  As 
the  only  fresh  air  supply  in  winter  is  derived  from  the  registers,  it 
follows  that  better  ventilation  is  obtained  by  the  introduction  of  a 
copious,  but  moderately  warm  current  than  from  a  small  admix- 
ture of  very  hot  air,  but  the  latter  is  the  cheaper  mode,  in  consump- 
tion of  coal  as  well  as  in  the  first  cost  of  the  apparatus. 

With  heaters  of  large  radiating  surface,  the  pipes  to  the  prin- 
cipal first-story  rooms  should  not  be  less  than  12  inches  in  diam- 
eter, and  9  or  10  inch  pipes  should  supply  the  larger  chambers ;  but 
for  those  consisting  of  a  mere  cylinder  of  wrought  or  cast  iron, 
9-inch  pipes  are  large  enough  for  the  ground-floor,  and  6  or  7  inch 
for  upper  rooms.  Inexperienced  architects  and  house-owners 
often  make  the  mistake  of  putting  in  too  many  pipes  and  registers. 
Every  unnecessary  one,  by  the  leakage  at  the  dampers  and  the 
chilling  of  the  exposed  pipe,  interferes  with  the  working  of  all 
the  others,  and  many  houses  are  almost  uninhabitable  in  cold 
weather,  with  a  register  in  every  room,  which  would  be  quite 
comfortable  with  half  the  number  judiciously  arranged. 

Wherever  possible,  the  hot-air  pipes  should  run  through  closets 
or  inferior  rooms,  exposed  to  view,  but  it  is  usually  necessary  to 
carry  up  some  behind  the  furring  of  chimney-breasts,  or  even  in 
partitions.  This  involves  danger  of  fire,  which  must  be  guarded 
against.  Where  the  pipes  pass  through  the  floors,  a  tin  ring, 
flanged  over  floor  and  ceiling,  is  usually  inserted,  through  which  the 
hot-air  pipe  runs,  leaving  half  an  inch  air-space  all  around ;  and 
through  the  whole  of  its  course,  all  wood-work  exposed  to  the 
radiation  from  it  should  be  covered  with  pieces  of  bright  tin. 
Specifications  for  furnace-work  generally  require  all  wood  within 
two  inches  of  the  pipe  to  be  so  protected,  but  this  will  rarely  be 
done  in  contract  work  unless  the  supervision  is  very  close.  A 
much  better  way  is  to  have  all  the  pipes  which  are  to  be  concealed 
behind  wood-work  made  double,  <£  space  of  half  an  inch  or  so 
being  left  between  the  outer  and  inner  cylinders,  through  which  air 
circulates  freely.  Where  the  pipes  are  carried  up  in  partitions  with- 
out such  protection,  heavy  wire  lath  should  replace  wood  over  them. 


142 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


Of  the  plumber's  work,  only  a  small  part  will  generally  need 
to  be  done  before  plastering.     Although  supply-pipes  are  now 
generally  planned  to  run  outside  the  walls,  in  positions 
Work  Cr '       where  they  can  be  easily  reached,  iron  waste  and  ven- 
tilation pipes  are  often  best  carried  up  in  partitions, 
and  these  must  be  set  in  place  in  time  to  avoid  subsequent  cutting 
of  the  plaster,  so  that  the  plumber  should  be  notified  in  season. 

Gas-piping  must  be  all  completed  before  the  lathing  can  com- 
mence, and  will  need  vigilant  watching.  Careless  and  stupid  in 

regard  to  the  work  of  others  as  plumbers  are  apt  to 
Gas-Piping      ,    &   ,  _  e  .  r  . 

be,  the  cheap  gas-fitters  far  surpass  them  in  capacity 

for  botching  their  own  work  and  destroying  that  of  others.  If 
the  plan  shows  two  or  three  rooms  en  suite,  with  a  centre  light  in 
the  ceiling  of  each,  the  workman  will  generally,  if  the  superintend- 
ent is  out  of  sight,  proceed  to  take  up  a  board  through  the  middle 
of  the  floor  above,  and  notch  the  entire  tier  of  beams  from  one  to 
six  inches  deep  in  the  middle  of  their  span,  weakening  the  floor 
dangerously  and  irreparably ;  or  short  cuts  will  be  taken  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner  across  girders,  braces,  or  anything  else  that  may  hap- 
pen to  be  in  the  way.  All  good  specifications  stipulate  that  no 
beam  shall  be  notched  at  a  greater  distance  than  two  feet  from  the 
bearing,  where  the  cutting  down  does  not  materially  affect  the 
strength,  and  that  all  centre-lights  shall  be  supplied  by  branch 
pipes  at  the  proper  points,  but  irresponsible  journeymen,  unless 
watched,  pay  little  regard  to  such  documents. 

Care  must  also  be  taken  to  see  that  all  pipes  are  laid  with  a 
continuous  fall  toward  the  meter,  as  otherwise  they  may  be  choked 
by  liquid  condensed  from  the  gas ;  and  the  position  of  all  centre- 
lights  and  brackets  should  be  verified.  No  pains  will  generally 
be  taken  to  have  them  accurately  placed,  so  long  as  they  come 
within  a  few  inches  of  their  proper  position,  unless  the  men  are' 
strictly  looked  after,  and  annoying  difficulties  are  likely  to  be  en- 
countered in  consequence  when  the  ceiling  is  decorated.  The 
height  of  the  bracket  outlets  from  the  floor  will  also  generally  be 
varied  to  save  the  workman  the  trouble  of  cutting  his  pipe,  rather 
than  with  a  view  to  their  appearance  or  use.  The  proper  height 
for  bracket  outlets  in  chambers  is  4  feet  10  inches  from  the  top  of 
the  under  floor;  in  halls  and  first-story  rooms,  5  feet  7  inches  is 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

the  rule.  Mirror  lights  should  have  outlets  8  feet  from  the 
floor. 

Even  if  the  outlets  are  properly  placed,  it  is  usually  too  much 
trouble  for  the  workman  to  cut  the  nipples  of  the  right  length,  or 
to  make  their  direction  normal  to  the  surface  from  which  they 
project,  and  consequently  the  fixtures,  after  the  house  is  completed 
and  paid  for,  will  be  found  to  take  all  sorts  of  unexpected  angles 
with  walls  and  ceilings,  which  can  only  be  remedied  by  hanging 
the  chandeliers  with  ball-and-socket  joints,  or  bending  the  nipples, 
at  the  imminent  risk  of  causing  a  bad  leak.  The  proper  time  to 
make  sure  of  this  point  is  while  the  work  is  going  on.  A  straight 
piece  of  pipe,  a  foot  or  more  in  length,  and  of  the  proper  calibre, 
should  be  screwed  upon  each  nipple,  as  soon  as  set,  and  carefully 
levelled  and  plumbed,  and  tested  with  a  carpenter's  square.  If 
any  deviation  from  the  true  position  is  observed,  it  should  be  rec- 
tified before  the  inspection  of  the  pipes  by  the  mercury  gauge,  so 
that  any  leaks  caused  by  the  correction  may  be  detected.  All 
bends,  tees,  and  other  fittings  for  gas-pipe  under  two  inches  in 
diameter  should  be  specified  to  be  of  malleable  iron,  which  admits 
of  a  little  bending,  and  this  is  often  the  easiest  way  to  bring  the 
pipes  back  to  place.  The  nipples,  or  short  pieces  of  pipe  which 
project  through  the  plastering  and  receive  the  fixtures,  should  all 
be  cut  to  the  right  length,  so  that  they  may  project  not  more  than 
Ij4  or  less  than  ZA  °f  an  mch  beyond  the  finished  plastering,  al- 
lowing for  the  projection  of  the  "bud,"  or  middle  portion  of  the 
plaster  centre-piece.  It  saves  trouble — to  the  gas-fitter, — to  util- 
ize waste  bits  of  miscellaneous  lengths  for  the  purpose,  so  that  it  is 
generally  necessary,  after  the  house  is  done,  to  dig  some  of  the 
nipples  out  of  the  plaster  in  which  they  are  buried,  and  to  replace 
others  of  inordinate  length  by  pieces  of  proper  size ;  at  the  risk  in 
both  cases  of  detaching  the  centre-pieces  or  causing  leaks  within 
the  walls  or  ceilings. 

After  the  pipes  are  all  in  place,  their  whole  extent  should  be 
examined,  to  make  sure  that  no  split  or  defective  pipe,  made  tem- 
porarily tight  with  putty  or  red  lead,  forms  a  portion  of  the  sys- 
tem. This  once  ascertained,  the  caps  are  to  be  screwed  on,  and 
the  pipes  inspected  by  the  mercury  gauge,  which  will  always  be 
done  on  a  request  left  at  the  office  of  the  company  which  will  sup- 


144 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


ply  gas  to  the  house.  To  one  of  the  outlets  is  attached  a  manome- 
ter tube,  or  inverted  siphon,  with  the  short  leg  closed,  filled  with 
mercury.  Air  is  then  pumped  into  the  pipes  until  the  mercury 
stands  at  a  given  height  in  the  tube,  and  the  whole  left  over  night. 
The  next  morning,  if  the  mercury  column  remains  at  the  same 
height,  the  piping  is  pronounced  tight.  The  superintendent  should 
witness  this  process,  and  satisfy  himself  of  the  result,  instead  of 
taking  the  word  of  the  gas-fitter  in  regard  to  it. 

The  wires  for  electric  lights,  if  any  are  used,  must  also  be  put 
in  place  before  lathing.  In  country  houses,  where  economy  is 
necessary,  it  is  usual  to  employ  wires  heavily  insulated 
w?r°ingC  w^^  India-rubber  or  gutta-percha,  covered  with  black 
or  white  cotton,  braided  on,  and  to  run  these  in  floors 
and  partitions  without  other  protection,  simply  boring  the  floor- 
beams,  and  inserting  short  porcelain  tubes,  where  the  wires  pass 
through  them.  If  carefully  done,  and  if  the  wires  are  of  the  sizes 
specified  in  the  official  schedule  for  the  number  of  lights  supplied 
by  each,  this  system  is  sufficiently  safe  for  the  purpose,  but  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  wires  in  floors  and  partitions  are 
kept  everywhere  at  least  three  inches  apart,  so  that  there  may  be 
no  danger  of  short-circuiting  between  them;  that  they  are  not 
allowed  to  sag,  so  as  to  come  in  contact  with  the  plastering,  and 
that  the  insulation  is  not  injured.  Where  joints  are  made,  the 
insulation  must  be  cut  off,  so  as  to  expose  the  wires  for  soldering, 
but  the  joint  must  then  be  well  wrapped  with  insulating  tape.  At 
the  fixtures  the  wires  must,  of  course,  be  brought  nearly  together ; 
but  the  fixture  wires  carry  only  a  small  current,  and  are  easily 
inspected,  while  a  short-circuit  between  them,  or  between  one  of 
them  and  a  gas  or  other  pipe,  is  much  less  dangerous  than  one 
occurring  in  a  floor  or  partition. 

Where  a  thoroughly  good  construction  can  be  afforded,  all 

the  electric  lighting  wires  should  run  in  conduits.     A 
Conduits 

heavy  braided  conduit,  saturated  with  asphalt,  is  much 

used,  the  wires  being  slipped  through  it  before  laying;  but  in  a 
large  building,  or  where  the  conduits  are  liable  to  injury  from  any 
cause,  they  should  be  of  wrought  iron,  screwed  together  like  gas- 
pipes,  and  arranged  with  easy  curves,  so  that  the  wires  can  be 
"drawn  in"  after  the  conduit  system  is  completed.  The  iron  pipes 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

used  for  the  purpose  are  usually  lined  with  an  insulating  coating, 
and  the  wires  in  them  are  also  insulated,  so  that  they  afford  a  very 
perfect  and  durable  protection ;  and,  by  arranging  them  so  that  the 
wires  can  be  drawn  in,  repairs  to  the  wiring  are  easily  made, 
without  cutting  floors  or  breaking  into  the  plastering.  With  the 
iron  conduits  cast  iron  "junction-boxes"  and  other  fittings  must 
be  used,  so  that  the  installation  is  a  rather  expensive  one.  In 
order  to  prevent  trouble  from  induced  currents  in  metal  tubes,  it 
is  usual  to  require  that  wires  run  in  them  shall  be  "twins,"  con- 
sisting of  two  or  more  insulated  wires  of  opposite  polarity,  en- 
closed in  the  same  covering ;  and  the  local  Boards  of  Underwriters 
establish,  from  time  to  time,  rules  for  this  and  other  systems  of 
wiring,  which  must  be  complied  with  in  order  to  secure  approval 
of  the  wiring  by  the  official  inspector. 

Occasionally,  an  owner  is  found  who  prefers  the  old-fashioned 
system  of  wiring  for  bells,  running  plain  wires,  and 
changing  their  direction  by  means  of  brass  "cranks." 
If  this  is  used,  the  wires  should  run  in  zinc  tubes,  either  buried  in 
the  plastering,  or,  better,  carried  between  studs  and  beams.  Such 
bell-wires,  however,  stretch  and  break,  in  time,  unless  very  care- 
fully put  in,  and  electric  bells,  for  which  insulated  copper  wires, 
simply  fixed  to  the  studs  or  beams  by  staples,  are  used,  are  gen- 
erally preferred.  Whichever  style  is  adopted,  the  position  of  the 
bells,  and  pulls,  or  buttons,  should  be  shown  on  the  plans,  or  care-, 
fully  marked  by  the  superintendent,  with  reference  to  the  furni- 
ture which  will  occupy  the  rooms.  Nothing,  in  a  layman's  eyes, 
does  more  discredit  to  an  architect  than  to  find  gas  or  electric- 
light  outlets  situated  behind  doors,  or  bells  so  placed  that  a  bed  or 
dressing-case  must  inevitably  come  in  front  of  them. 

With  the  bell-wires  may  be  placed  those  for  burglar  alarms, 
or  electric  gas-lighting.  Both  of  these  conveniences  need  careful 
installation,  or  they  will  soon  become  useless.  In  city  houses, 
especially,  the  thinly-insulated  wires  used  for  bells,  burglar  alarms 
and  gas-lighting,  if  placed  against  outside  walls,  are  often  affected 
by  the  dampness  of  the  wall  in  rainy  or  cold  weather. 

While  these  operations  are  going  on  inside,  the  outside  finish 
has  been  rapidly  advancing,  so  that  the  whole  building  may  be,  so 
far  as  possible,  tight  against  rain  by  the  time  the  interior  is  given 

10 


Gutters 


Shingles 


I46  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

up  to  the  plasterers.  The  gutters  are  first  put  on,  and  the  shing- 
ling or  slating,  beginning  at  the  eaves,  is  carried  to  the  top.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  the  gutter  is  so  placed  as  to  catch  rainwater, 
but  allow  snow  to  slide  over  it.  (Fig.  123. )  Young 
architects  often  find  their  detail  drawings  for  cornices 
defective  in  this  particular.  For  additional  protection  against 
snow-water  backing  up  under  the  shingles,  or  the  overflow  of  the 
gutter  dribbling  through  behind  the  cornice,  the  gutter  should  be 
ploughed  at  top  and  bottom,  and  "facias"  inserted  as  shown  in  the 
figure.  The  shingling  or  slating  begins  with  a  dou- 
ble course,  and  the  gauge  is  then  marked  off  regularly 
to  the  top.  Ordinary  shingles,  sixteen  inches  long,  should  not 
show  more  than  four  and  a  half  inches  to  the  weather,  unless  on 
very  steep  roofs.  The  thick  Michigan  pine  shingles,  eighteen  and 
twenty  inches  long,  can  be  laid  with  much  more  projection  with- 
out fear  of  breaking  or  curling. 
Each  must  be  nailed  with  two 
nails,  which  should  be  galvanized 
if  a  very  permanent  roof  is  de- 
sired. Common  nails  rust  out 
long  before  good  shingles,  well 
painted,  become  unserviceable. 

It  is  easy  to  judge  of  the  qual- 
ity of  shingles.  Freedom  from 
knots  and  cross  grain,  and  an  ap- 
proximation to  uniform  width,  are 
the  principal  requisites.  Spruce 
shingles,  which  are  unfit  to  use  in 
any  but  inferior  buildings,  are  easily  distinguished  by  their  ap- 
pearance and  smell,  which  differ  completely  from  the  aromatic 
odor  and  silky  grain  of  the  "white  cedar,"  or  arbor-vitse  wood, 
from  which  those  in  ordinary  use  are  made.  Pine  shingles  are  of 
a  special  size,  and  those  of  the  Virginia  cypress,  which  have  the 
reputation  of  being  everlasting,  are  somewhat  costly,  and  have  but 
a  limited  market.  The  choice  between  sawed  and  shaved  shingles 
depends  upon  circumstances.  The  latter  allow  water  to  run  off 
more  freely,  and  are  to  be  preferred  if  unpainted,  while  the  former 
hold  paint  better,  and  are  therefore  generally  used  by  architects. 


Fig.  123 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


147 


Painting 
Shingles 


In  laying,  the  widest  shingles  are  selected  for  the  hips  and 
valleys,  where  cutting  is  necessary,  in  order  to  give  room  for  two 
nails.  (Fig.  124.)  Many  of  the  best  car- 
penters lay  hips  like  Fig.  125,  so  that  the  cut 
shingle  will  not  come  at  the  extreme  edge,  and 
the  effect  is  picturesque,  while  the  durability 
of  the  roof  is  improved. 

Fig.  124  The  painting  of  a  shingle  roof  is  impor- 

tant. Many  architects  specify  that  each  shingle  shall 
be  dipped  in  paint,  some  even  requiring  the  paint  to  be 
hot ;  but  this  is  tedious  and  expensive.  A  simpler  and 
very  good  way  is  to  paint  each  course  as  it  is  laid ;  and  the  cheap- 
est is  to  do  it  all  at  once  after  the  roofers  are  out  of  the  way.  The 
last  process  rather  hastens  the  de- 
cay of  the  shingles,  by  forming 
little  dams  of  paint  which  hold 
back  the  rain-water  against  the  un- 
protected portions,  but  is  usually 
adopted. 

Where  shingles  are  to  be  used, 
the  roof  boarding  is  generally  of 
hemlock  or  inferior  spruce,  planed 


Fig.  125 


Slating 


to  an  even  thickness,  and  one  or  two  "plies"  of  tarred  felt  are  laid 
under  the  shingles,  to  prevent  fine  snow  in  heavy  storms  from 
finding  its  way  into  the  rooms.  With  slates  still  greater  precau- 
tion is  necessary,  and  the  tarred  felt  should  not  only  be 
double,  with  all  joints  well  broken,  but  matched  pine 
boards  should  be  used  underneath.  The  "lap"  of  the  slates  will 
vary  according  to  the  size.  Ten  inches  by  twenty,  or  eight  by 
sixteen,  are  generally  used,  and  for  the  best  work  should  be  laid 
with  "three-inch  lap" ;  that  is,  each  slate  should  lap  three  inches 
beyond  the  head  of  the  second  slate  below  (Fig.  126),  and  the 
length  of  the  exposed  portion  will  be  found  by  deducting  the  lap 
from  the  whole  length  of  the  slate,  and  dividing  the  remainder  by 
two.  Two  inches  lap,  is  however,  common.  The  slates  should 
be  put  on  with  galvanized  nails,  not  driven  too  hard,  for  fear  of 
breaking  them,  nor  too  little,  lest  they  should  rattle  and  blow  off 
in  high  winds,  and  the  cut  slates  at  the  hips  should  be  watched  to 


148  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

see  that  they  are  not  hung  by  one  nail.  Patent  slating  nails,  which 
have  a  circle  of  japanned  tin  around  the  head,  are  useful.  The  flash- 
ings should  be  last  looked  after,  and  the  roof  will  then  be  complete. 
If  the  young  architect  is  ambitious  of  being  able  to  say  that  no 
roof  built  under  his  superintendence  ever  leaked,  he  will  need  to 

exercise  both  thoroughness  in  inspection  and  skill 
Leaks  in  Roofs    .  .,.        £  .  .  .  „,. 

in  providing  for  various  contingencies.     The  worst 

leaks  come  from  improper  position  of  the  gutters,  by  which  wet 
snow  sliding  from  the  roof  is  caught  and  held  back.  It  soon 
freezes  to  the  roof  along  the  lower  edge,  the 
upper  portion  remaining  free,  and  the  water 
subsequently  running  down  the  slope  is 
caught  as  in  a  long,  deep  pocket,  in  which  it 
rises  rapidly  until  its  level  reaches  that  of  the 
upper  edge  of  a  course  of  slates  or  shingles, 
Fig.  126  over  which  it  pours  in  a  sheet,  to  find  its  way 

into  the  rooms  below.  Next  to  this  defect  insufficient  flashing  in 
valleys  is  perhaps  the  worst.  As  metal  is  expensive,  the  roofer's 
interest  is  to  save  as  much  of  it  as  possible,  and  the  superintendent 
must  consider  the  circumstances  of  pitch  and  extent  of  roof  sur- 
face draining  into  the  valley,  and  the  slope  of  the  valley  itself, 
which  should  determine  the  depth  which  the  water  will  probably 
attain  in  it.  In  certain  cases,  where  the  roofs  are  large,  this  may 
be  a  dozen  inches  or  more  in  summer  showers,  and  the  only 
security  is  to  make  the  valley  flashings  of  corresponding  size. 

A  very  common  place  for  a  small  leak  is  around  the  chimneys, 
where  rain  or  snow  often  blow  through  between  the  bricks  and 
the  flaps  of  a  "stepped  flashing."  The  rem- 
edy is  a  liberal  application  of  elastic  or  "Bos- 
ton" cement  between  the  brickwork  and  the 
metal.  The  same  cement  is  also  needed  to 
prevent  water  from  getting  in  at  the  angle  of 
a  hip  in  a  slated  roof,  unless  the  hip  is  pro-  Fig.  127 
tected  by  flashings  (See  Part  I,  page  78).  This  should  always  be 
the  case  where  a  permanent  construction  is  intended,  since  the 
cement  soon  "burns  out"  and  crumbles  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  on 
the  slates.  Shingles  fit  much  more  closely,  and  will  generally 
make  a  tight  hip  without  cement  or  metal. 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


149 


While  the  roofers  are  at  work,  the  window  frames  are  being 
rapidly  set  in  place.     These,  in  wooden  houses,  are  mere  fronts, 
in  plan  like  Fig.    127,  A  being  the  "pulley-style," 
grooved  for  the  parting-bead,  while  B  is  the  outside        Frames' 
casing.     When  this  is  put  in  place  and  nailed  to  the 
rough  boarding,  the  space  X,  between  the  pulley-style  and  the 
stud,  forms  the  pocket  for  the  weights. 

The  casing  B  is  often  moulded  or  ornamented.  If  plain,  it 
should  be  i  *4  inches  thick,  to  prevent  curling  under  the  heat  of  the 
sun.  Its  inner  edge,  projecting  half 
an  inch  beyond  the  face  of  the  pul- 
ley-style, is  usually  made  to  form  one 
side  of  the  channel  in  which  the  upper 
sash  slides,  but  it  is  much  better  to 
increase  the  depth  of  the  reveal  by 
inserting  a  slip  C,  some  five-eighths 
or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide, 
changing  the  position  of  the  parting- 
bead  to  -correspond. 


I28  Fis-  I29 

Independent  of  the  improved  appearance  of 


such  a  frame,  room  is  thus  given  for  mosquito-nets  and  blinds. 
The  shingles  or  clapboards  are  laid  close  up  to  the  other  edge  of 
the  casing,  but  when  this  shrinks  a  vertical  opening  is  left,  through 
which  rain  penetrates,  and  tarred  felt,  or  still  better,  strips  of  zinc, 
must  be  laid  in  behind  the  casing  and  the  adjacent  work.  The 
junction  of  the  clapboards  or  shingles  with  the  top  of  the 
casings  must  also  be  protected.  Some  carpenters  do  this 
by  tacking  a  strip  of  lead  to  the  boards  just  over  the  cas- 
ing, and  turning  it  down  over  the  edge  (Fig.  128),  but  it 
is  neater  and  tighter  to  rebate  the  top  of  the  casing  (Fig. 
129).  If  this  is  done,  and  the  vertical  sides  of  the  casing 
are  grooved  into  the  head  (Fig.  130),  the  sills  set  to  a 
sharp  pitch,  one  and  a  half  inches  or  so,  and  grooved 
underneath  for  inserting  the  shingles  or  clapboards  which 
come  below  them,  the  superintendent  may  be  tolerably  sure  that 
his  building  will  not  show  that  most  annoying  of  defects,  leakage 
around  the  edges  of  the  openings  ;  and  the  shingling  or  clapboard- 
ing  may  be  commenced  at  once. 

Before  this,  however,  the  back-plastering,  if  any  is  specified, 


Fig.  130 


I50  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

should  have  been  completed,  in  order  that  its  drying  may  be 
favored  by  the  circulation  of  air  through  the  open  joints  of  the 
boarding;  and  notice  must  be  given  to  the  plasterers  in  ample 
season.  The  mode  usually  considered  best  is  to  nail 
pfastering  fi^ets  to  tne  s^es  °f  tne  studs,  and  to  lath  on  these,  so 
that  in  theory  a  double  air-space  is  formed  by  the  out- 
side boarding,  the  sheet  of  back-plastering,  and  the  inner  plaster ; 
but  in  practice  it  is  inconvenient  to  nail  fillets  in  the  narrow  space 
between  the  ledger  boards  and  the  outer  boarding  of  a  balloon 
frame,  or  just  above  the  dropped-girt  of  a  braced  frame,  and  still 
more  so  to  nail  laths  to  them,  so  that  these  spaces  are  usually  neg- 
lected, and  the  wind  which  blows  in  under  the  clapboards  and 
paper  of  even  the  best  built  house  finds  an  issue  at  such  points  into 
the  interior.  The  real  object  should  be  to  spread  a  continuous 
sheet  of  mortar  from  sill  to  plate,  and  this  can  be  much  better 
accomplished  by  omitting  the  fillets,  and  nailing  two  lines  of  lath 
vertically  on  the  inside  of  the  outside  boarding,  between  each  pair 
of  studs,  then  lathing  horizontally  on  these,  and  plastering  with  a 
thick  coat  of  mortar,  well  pressed  on,  so  as  to  fill  in  between  the 
laths  and  the  boarding.  By  this  method  room  is  left  for  the 
mason  to  insert  his  trowel  and  hand  behind  the  ledger-boards  or 
flooring-strips,  and  reach  every  inch  of  space  between  the  studs, 
closing  it  against  the  wind,  if  care  is  taken  to  bring  the  mortar 
well  up  on  the  studs,  with  almost  the  imperviousness  of  a  solid 
brick  wall. 

The  meaner  contractors,  not  in  consequence  of  scientific  deduc- 
tion, but  from  desire  of  gain,  often  caricature  this  mode,  by  lath- 
ing vertically  directly  on  the  boarding,  without  the  interposition 
of  the  first  laths,  which  are  essential  to  give  a  key  to  the  mortar, 
and  prevent  it  from  cracking  off.  Some  even  content  themselves, 
if  not  observed,  with  simply  spreading  the  mortar  on  the  boards, 
without  any  lathing  whatever.  It  stays  in  place  just  about  long* 
enough  for  the  contractor  to  get  his  pay. 

As  soon  as  the  back-plastering  is  done,  it  is  usual  in  good 

houses  to  apply  some  precautions  against  the  spread 
Fire-Stops          -  ,,  j^T  r  j      •      * 

of  fire  and  the  passage  of  rats  and  mice  from  room 

to  room.     In  the  cellar,  the  whole  space  between  the  beams,  from 
the  sill  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  wall,  should  be  filled  in  solid 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


with  brick-work  and  mortar  (Fig.  131),  up  to  the  under  side  of 
the  floor-boards.  This  not  only  keeps  out  the  cold  wind  which 
would  otherwise  blow  freely  through  the  chinks  about  the  sill  and 
the  base-mouldings  of  the  house,  but  renders  it  impossible  for  rats 
and  mice  to  climb  on  top  of  the  wall  and  gnaw  their  way  through 
the  floor  above.  If  the  cellar  ceiling  is  not  plastered,  the  space 
above  the  girders  should  be  bricked  up,  for  the  same  reason ;  and 
in  any  case  a  brick  partition,  at  least  four  inches  thick,  should  be 
built,  in  mortar,  on  top  of  every  girder,  between  the  studs  of  the 
partition  which  rest  on  it,  and  on  the  heads  of  all  partitions  above 
which  cross  the  beams,  to  a  height  of  two  or  three  inches  above 
the  floor.  By  this  means  the  hollow  spaces  between  the  ceilings 
and  floors  are  divided  up  into  compartments,  effectually  cutting 
off  the  circulation  of  cold  air  through  the  floors  which  is  so  much 
to  be  feared  in  country  houses,  while  fire  is  prevented  from  spread- 
ing laterally  between  the  beams.  It  is  very  desirable  also  to  fill  in 
with  brickbats  and  mortar  between  the  studs 
of  all  partitions,  at  about  half  the  height  of  the 
room.  This  "fire-stop"  belt  may  be  laid  on 
top  of  the  bridging,  and  will  check  the  upward 
course  of  fire,  forcing  it  to  burn  out  into  the 
open  room,  where  it  will  be  discovered  and 
means  applied  for  extinguishing  it.  The 
principle  should  never  be  lost  sight  of,  that  the 
chief  danger  from  fire  in  dwelling-houses 
comes  from  allowing  it  to  find  its  way  into 
the  wooden  tubes,  lined  with  bristling  splint- 
ers, nearly  as  inflammable  as  tinder,  which  are  formed  by  the 
interior  surfaces  of  the  laths,  studs,  beams  and  flooring-boards. 
In  these  the  flames  creep,  undiscovered  and  inaccessible,  through 
and  through  a  house  in  which  no  device  is  adopted  for  intercept- 
ing the  communication  between  such  air-spaces,  until  they  gain 
strength  enough  to  burst  out  fiercely  in  a  dozen  places  at  once,  and 
the  building,  already  permeated  in  all  directions  by  the  fire,  is 
quickly  destroyed. 

To  carry  out  the  system  of  protection  with  any  thoroughness, 
the  spaces  between  the  outside  studs  must  also  be  divided  into  sec- 
tions by  incombustible  material.  With  braced  frames  this  can 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

very  well  be  done  by  means  of  brickwork  laid  upon  the  girts,  but 
for  balloon  frames  it  is  necessary  to  nail  in  short  pieces  of  timber 
between  the  studs  at  the  level  of  the  ledger  boards,  to  build  upon. 
A  good  body  of  masonry  should  also  be  formed  on  top  of  the 
plate,  filling  the  whole  space  between  the  rafters  to  the  under  side 
of  the  roof-boards.  This  is  an  invaluable  defense  against  cold  air 
as  well  as  fire,  both  of  which  usually  find  the  cornice  a  very  vulner- 
able feature. 

One  other  point  remains  to  be  guarded:  the  hollow  space 
around  the  chimneys,  behind  the  furring  of  the  breasts.  The 
easiest  way  of  obtaining  a  partial  protection  is  to  lath  and  plaster 
the  ceiling  from  the  chimney  outward  as  far  as  the  breast  will 
extend,  before  setting  the  furrings.  A  single  rough  coat  only 
need  be  used,  and  it  can  be  put  on  at  the  same  time  as  the  back- 
plastering,  so  as  not  to  cause  any  delay.  If  stout 
iron  lathing  is  used  instead  of  the  ordinary  kind,  and 
especially  if  the  mortar  is  "gauged"  with  a  liberal  dose  of  plaster 
of  Paris,  a  very  efficient  protection  is  obtained  for  the  portion  of 
the  building  most  exposed  to  danger. 

Where  the  owner  is  disposed  to  incur  a  small  extra  expense 
for  the  sake  of  additional  safety,  iron  lath  will  be  found  generally 
of  great  service.  Only  the  heaviest  kind  should  be  used,  as  the 
numerous  furrings  necessary  to  secure  the  more  flexible  varieties 
detract  very  much  from  its  value  as  a  protection  against  fire.  By 
applying  it  to  the  surface  of  chimney-breasts  and  the  under  side  of 
the  stairs,  great  security  is  gained  for  the  building,  at  a  trifling 
expense,  and  it  may  be  employed  also  in  the  ceilings  and  walls 
about  furnaces  and  stoves.  Where  it  is  necessary,  as  it  will  some- 
times be,  to  carry  hot-air  pipes  in  partitions,  the  lathing  over  them 
should  always  be  of  iron,  unless  the  pipes  are  made  double,  or  a 
casing  of  bright  tin  put  all  around  them  on  the  wood-work  and 
under  the  laths  before  plastering.  By  first  nailing  laths  vertically 
on  the  studs,  the  iron  can  be  brought  to  the  same  plane  as  the 
wooden  laths  on  each  side,  and  the  plastering  will  form  an  unbro- 
ken surface.  Even  the  cost  of  using  iron  lath  throughout  a 
dwelling-house  is  in  many  ways  repaid.  Its  power  of  holding  the 
mortar  so  firmly  that  no  amount  of  force  will  detach  it,  to  which, 
far  more  than  to  its  incombustible  material,  it  owes  its  efficiency 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

in  resisting  fire,  is  equally  valuable  in  maintaining  a  perfect  sur- 
face for  walls  and  ceilings.  Such  plastering  does  not  crack  or 
sag ;  no  violence  can  shake  it  down,  and  the  most  prolonged  water- 
soaking  fails  to  detach  it  from  the  lathing.  , 

Whether  a  larger  or  smaller  number  of  'J         I  ' .  _ 

these  precautions  shall  be  adopted  will  de- 
pend on  circumstances.  If  wooden  laths 
are  to  be  used  for  the  plastering,  the  super- 
intendent should  see  that  they  have  the 
requisite  number  of  nailings,  and  are  not 
placed  too  near  together.  Three-eighths 
of  an  inch  is  the  proper  distance :  if  nearer 
together  the  mortar  will  not  be  effectually  pressed  through  the 
intervals,  and  its  hold  will  be  feeble :  if  farther  apart, 
it  will  not,  while  soft,  sustain  its  own  weight.  It  is 
usual  to  specify  that  the  joints  shall  be  broken  every 
six  courses ;  but  it  is  much  better  and  not  much  more  troublesome 
to  break  joints  at  every  course :  and  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
laths  above  the  door  and  window  heads  extend  at 
least  to  the  next  stud  beyond  the  jamb  (Fig.  132), 
so  as  to  prevent  the  radiating  cracks  which  are  apt  to  appear  at 
that  point.  Where  the  men  meet  with  a  small  space,  whose  long- 
est direction  is  perpendicular  to  that  of  the  other  lathing,  they  are 
apt  to  fill  it  up  with  laths  set  at  right  angles  with  the  rest.  •  (Fig. 
133.)  This  should  never  be  permitted,  as  cracks  are  sure  to 
appear  afterward  where  the  change  of  direc- 
tion takes  place. 

After  the  application  of  the  laths,  if  not 
before,  the  furrings  should  be  verified.  The 
soffits  of  dormer  windows,  the  under  side  of 
stairs,  and  all  angles  of  walls  and  ceilings 
Should  be  carefully  observed  to  see  that  their 
surfaces  are  plane.  Chimney-breasts  should 
be  tried  with  a  carpenter's  square,  to  make  sure  that  their  external 
and  internal  angles  are  right  angles,  and  the  position  of  the 
chimney-breasts  in  the  room  should  be  finally  examined.  All 
laths  which  show  knots,  portions  of  bark  or  stains  should  be  pulled 
off  on  the  spot  and  thrown  away,  and  their  places  supplied  with 


I54  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

fresh  ones,  as  such  imperfections  in  the  laths  are  liable  to  cause 
discoloration  in  the  plaster  over  them ;  and  for  the  same  reason  all 
brickwork  which  is  to  be  plastered  should  be  cleared  from  soot, 
tobacco  juice  or  soluble  defilements. 

At  least  seven  days  before  the  lathing  is  finished  all  the  mortar 
for  the  first  coat  of  plastering  should  have  been  mixed  and  stacked ; 
if  possible  in  some  place  outside  the  house,  since  the  evaporation 
from  so  large  a  mass  of  wet  material,  if  stored,  as  is  often  done,  in 
the  cellar,  causes  the  timbers  to  swell  through  dampness.  The 
lime  must  be  of  the  best  quality,  free  from  every  trace  of  under- 
burnt  "core."  If  the  lumps,  on  being  covered  with  water,  slake 
for  a  time  with  considerable  violence,  but  leave  a  residue  which 
must  be  crushed  by  the  hoe,  the  whole  should  be  rejected.  Such 
lime,  unless  it  can  be  stored  long  enough  to  insure  this  conversion 
of  every  portion  not  absolutely  inert,  will  surely  cause  the  plaster- 
ing made  from  it  to  blister  and  "chip-crack,"  sometimes  after  the 
lapse  of  months;  and  with  the  best  lime  it  is  unsafe  to  put  the 
mortar  on  the  wall  until  it  has  "cooled"  for  a  week  or  more,  to 
allow  all  the  particles  to  become  hydrated.  The  ancient  method, 
by  which  the  slaked  lime  was  stored  in  pits  and  not  drawn  upon 
for  use  until  after  one  or  two  years'  seasoning,  unfortunately  has 
become  obsolete. 

Loamy  sand  is  nearly  as  much  to  be  dreaded  in  plastering  as 

underburnt  lime.     Some  varieties  contain  particles  of  compact  clay 

or  soil  which  will,  after  a  season's  drying,  assume  a 

powdery  condition,  expanding  as  they  do  so,  and 

throwing  off  the  mortar  in  hundreds  of  little  pits,  like  the  scars  of 

small-pox.     Moistening  the  sand  and  rubbing  it  on  the  hands  will 

usually  give  sufficient  evidence  of  the  presence  of  loam  or  clay  by 

the  stain  which  it  leaves  on  the  skin. 

After  seeing  that  the  mortar  is  well  pushed  through  the  laths 
with  the  trowels,  so  as  to  bend  over  on  the  inside,  the  straightness 
of  the  angles,  both  vertical  and  horizontal,  between 
m9     walls  and  ceilings  should  be  assiduously  criticised. 
In  twcKroat  work,  such  as  is  used  throughout  the  Eastern  States 
for  dwelling-houses  of  moderate  cost,  there  is  no  op- 
portunity for  bringing  the  surfaces  to  a  true  plane 
after  the  first  coat  is  on,  since  the  second  or  "skim  coat"  is  a  mere 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

varnish,  less  than  l/%  of  an  inch  in  thickness;  and  the  plasterer 
must  use  his  judgment  in  laying  on  just  mortar  enough  to  fill  out 
to  the  line  after  it  has  been  trowelled  down  enough  to  force  it  well 
through  the  laths.  This  can  seldom  be  done  with  any  accuracy 
over  the  larger  surfaces,  but  by  applying  the  long,  thin-edged 
board  which  is  used  to  finish  against  the  angle  beads  as  a  ruler, 

any  reasonably  careful  man  can  insure  the  straight- 

j  r  A-u  j  ^-       t,      i?  u    Straight-edge 

ness  and  accuracy  of  the  corners,  and  this  should  be 

insisted  upon,  as  the  eye  immediately  detects  any  irregularity  in  the 
angle  between  walls,  or  between  the  wall  and  ceiling,  while  inequal- 
ities of  the  intermediate  portions  are  unnoticed.    .With  three  coats 
it  is  easy  to  obtain  surfaces  absolutely  plane,  by  using 
the  proper  means.     The  scratch-coat  is  to  be  very     Joat-Work 
strongly  trowelled  and  well  scratched  up  with  a  sort 
of  comb,  made  of  sharpened  laths,  nailed  in  a  row  on  a  stick. 
After  this  is  thoroughly  dry,  "screeds"  should,  for  a  first-class 

job,  be  run  all  around  the  margin  of  the  ceiling,  con-  ^ 

•     •  r     .  •  r  r   11  j  Scratch-Coat 

sistmg  of  strips  of  mortar,  carefully  put  on,  and 

brought  to  a  perfectly  plane  and  horizontal  surface  by  means  of 
the  spirit  level  and  a  long  straight  edge,  applied  diagonally  across 
the  corners  as  well  as  along  each  strip.     For  a  small         screed 
ceiling  this  will  be  sufficient,  but  a  large  one  requires 
intermediate  screeds,  brought  accurately  to  the  plane  of  the  first 
ones.     When  the  screeds  have  hardened  a  little,  the  space  between 
them  is  filled  with  "brown"  mortar,  which  is  easily  made  perfectly 
even  by  means  of  the  straight-edge.     Similar  screeds  should  be 
formed  in  the  vertical  angles  of  the  room,  plumbed,  and  the  inter- 
mediate spaces  filled  up  to  a  plane  surface.     If  cornices  are  to  be 
run,  which  is  always  done  before  the  last  coat  of  plastering,  the 
angles  should  be  as  rough  as  possible,  to  give  them 
sufficient  "key."     The  superintendent  should  study 
the  profile  of  the  proposed  mouldings,  and  if  a  large  mass  of  mor- 
tar will  be  left  in  the  angle,  he  should  order  nails  to  be  driven  to 
hold  up  the  coarse  mortar  which  is  used  for  "dubbing  out"  the 
cornice  before  the  finer  material  is  applied.      (Fig.  134.)     Some 
care  is  necessary  to  see  that  the  final  coat  of  plastering  is  not  in- 
jured by  freezing  in  winter  or  by  too  rapid  drying  in  summer. 
From  the  latter  cause  the  finished  work  near  the  windows  is  often 


!c;6  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

found  covered  with  a  net-work  of  minute  cracks,  particularly  on 
the  side  which  the  wind  strikes,  while  a  breeze  barely  at  the  freez- 
—  ing  point  will  cover  the  surface  with  radi- 
ating crystals,  disintegrating  it  so  that  on 
thawing  again  the  mortar  will  scale  off  in 
patches.  The  remedy  for  this  is  to  keep 


all  openings  protected  by  temporary  windows,  or  screens, 
consisting  of  wooden  frames  covered  with  cotton  cloth, 
well  fitted  to  the  openings.     Whether  the  plasterer  or  the 
carpenter  shall  provide  these  screens  or  temporary  win- 
dows depends  on  the  terms  of  their  respective  specifications.     Per- 
haps the  best  way  is  to  require  the  carpenter  to  supply 
and  fit  them,  and  the  plasterer  to  shift  them  in  such  a 
way  as  to  secure  his  work  against  freezing  or  unequal  drying. 

As  soon  as  the  plastering  is  completed,  the  plumber  must  be 
summoned  to  finish  his  work,  so  as  not  to  delay  the  joinery.  The 
pipes  will  be  first  put  up,  and  the  superintendent  must  thoroughly 

understand  the  purposes  and  requirements  of  each. 
Plumbing        r*     .  •  •  t.      tj  t.  r  11  ^-    •     j 

Cast-iron  pipes  should  be  carefully  scrutinized,  espe- 
cially where  cut  or  broken.  The  metal,  unless  double-thick  pipes 
are  specified,  will  be  very  light,  and  in  the  poorer  makes  it  is  apt 
from  careless  casting  to  be  much  thinner  on  one  side  than  the 
other.  If  any  particular  kind  is  called  for,  or  known  to  be  good, 
the  shape  of  the  "hub"  will  serve  to  distinguish  it,  if  the  name  of 
the  maker  is  not  cast  upon  the  pieces.  In  some  places 
iron  pipes  are  coated  with  asphaltum  at  the  factory, 
for  the  use  of  the  best  plumbers ;  the  inside  as  well  as  the  outside 
being  treated.  Elsewhere,  painting  with  red  lead  is  customary; 
and  this  is  generally  confined  to  the  outside,  as  the  inside  would 
soon  lose  its  coating.  The  asphaltum  forms  the  best  covering, 
but  whatever  is  used,  the  exterior  of  the  pipes  must  be  completely 
coated  before  they  are  brought  to  the  building.  The  joints  should 
be  made  with  oakum,  not  paper  or  shavings,  driven  in  tight,  and 
finished  with  melted  lead,  which,  after  the  pipes  are  fixed  in  posi- 
tion, is  to  be  thoroughly  calked  all  around.  It  is  often  much  more 
convenient  to  calk  the  joint  before  securing  the  pipes  in  place;  but 
the  jarring  so  occasioned  may  loosen  the  lead,  and  where  the  joint 
will  be  accessible  after  fixing  its  completion  should  be  deferred. 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  melted  lead  by  itself  will  not 
make  a  tight  joint,  since  the  shrinkage  of  the  metal  in  cooling 
draws  it  away  from  the  iron,  and  it  must  be  forced  again  into  con- 
tact with  the  calking  iron,  applied  at  every  point  of  the  circumfer- 
ence. A  first-class  workman  will  use  three  or  four  pounds  of  lead 
for  each  joint,  filling  the  hub  completely,  and  showing  the  marks 
of  the  tool  all  around.  Inferior  plumbers  leave  a  little  space  above 
the  lead,  which  they  afterwards  fill  up  with  putty,  smoothing  it 
neatly,  and,  if  possible,  getting  a  coat  of  paint  over  it  before  the 
superintendent  comes.  Such  joints  will  pass  the  test,  but  are  not 
durable  if  there  has  been  any  carelessness  in  calking  the  lead.  In- 
tentional swindlers  fill  the  joint  with  shavings,  paper,  mortar  or 
anything  else  which  happens  to  be  at  hand,  and  daub  the  top  over 
with  putty,  or  perhaps  with  a  little  lead,  ladled  out  of  the  pot. 

Rust  joints,  of  sal-ammoniac  and  iron  turnings,  are  some- 
times, though  rarely,  used.  They  are  said  to  be  tight  and  durable, 
but  likely,  if  unskilfully  made,  to  burst  the  hub  by  the  expansion 
of  the  mass.  All  iron  pipe  should  be  very  strongly  supported,  by 
iron  straps  and  hooks,  never  by  wires. 

For  high  buildings,  school  houses,  and  other  public  structures, 
and  dwelling  houses  of  a  certain  class,  there  is  nothing  so  good 
for  waste-pipes  as  wrought-iron  pipe,  such  as  is  used  for  convey- 
ing steam,  put  together  with  screw  joints.  After  such  joints  are 
once  made,  the  threads  being  coated  with  red  lead,  and  well 
screwed  together,  there  is  no  danger  of  their  separating;  and 
defects  are  less  likely  to  occur  in  wrought  iron  pipes  than  in  those 
of  cast  iron.  Care  should,  however,  be  taken  to  see  that  the  pipes 
and  fittings  are  firmly  screwed  together,  as  inferior  workmen 
often  give  the  joints  a  few  turns,  and  leave  them  in  a  most 
insecure  condition. 

Lead  pipes  should  be  examined  as  delivered.     The  weight  per 
foot,  or  the  letters  denoting  the  same  thing,  are  stamped  on  the 
ends  of  the  coils :  after  the  lengths  are  cut  off,  it  is 
more  difficult  to  ascertain  whether  they  comply  in 
weight  with  the  requirements  of  the  specification.     Most  lead 
manufacturers    furnish    cards    showing    the  thickness  of  metal 
corresponding  to  a  given  weight  for  each  calibre,  but  the  saw  used 
to  cut  it  spreads  out  the  lead,  increasing  the  apparent  thickness. 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

In  general,  lead  supply-pipes,  unless  for  a  tank  or  other  very  light 
pressure,  should  not  be  less  than  3-16  of  an  inch  in  thickness  of 
metal.  Waste  and  air  pipes  will  be  little  more  than  half  of  this. 
There  is  some  difference  in  the  quality  of  lead  pipes,  but  it  is  not 
easy  to  detect  it  except  by  analysis  or  the  test  of  use.  Honey- 
combed or  corroded  pipe,  and  any  which  shows  unequal  thickness 
of  metal  should,  however,  be  at  once  rejected. 

In  certain  localities  the  seamless  brass  tubing,  drawn  over  a 
mandril  in  the  same  way  as  lead  pipe,  is  much  in  favor  for  plumb- 
ing work,  and  where  the  pressure  is  very  heavy  or  the  water  is  so 
soft  as  to  attack  lead,  it  is  well  worth  the  additional 
cost,  which  is  not  usually  more  than  ten  to  fifteen  per 
cent,  on  the  whole  amount  of  the  plumber's  contract.  It  can  be 
had  either  plain,  or  coated  inside  and  outside  with  tin,  or,  for  use 
in  conspicuous  situations,  plated  with  nickel  and  polished;  and 
couplings,  unions,  bends,  tees,  and  all  varieties  of  cocks  and 
fittings  are  furnished  to  correspond  with  each  kind  of  pipe. 
Where  the  brass  tubing  is  employed  throughout  a  house,  it  is 
common  to  have  the  cold-water  supply  tinned  inside,  while  the 
hot-water,  which  is  not  likely  to  be  used  for  drinking,  is  conveyed 
in  the  ordinary  kind.  If  there  is  no  danger  that  either  brass  or 
lead  will  be  corroded  by  the  water,  it  is  not  unusual  in  the  best 
work  to  make  the  hot-water  pipes  only  of  brass,  using  lead  for  the 
others.  In  this  case  the  harder  metal  possesses  the  advantage  that 
if  properly  put  up,  with  the  angles  left  free  to  move  a  little  back 
and  forth  to  accommodate  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  pipe 
between  them,  it  is  not  injuriously  affected  by  repeated  alterna- 
tions of  heat  and  cold,  which  with  the  inelastic  and  ductile  lead 
first  stretch  the  pipe  by  contraction,  and  then,  as  it  does  not  possess 
elasticity  enough  to  recover  its  shape,  cause  it,  on  being  again 
extended  by  the  passage  of  warm  water  through  it,  to  sag  down  be- 
tween its  supports,  this  effect  increasing  by  repetitions  of  the  cause 
until  the  undulations  of  the  pipe  become  sufficiently  pronounced 
to  retard  or  stop  altogether  the  flow  of  water  through  it.  Where, 
however,  the  brass  tubing  is  tightly  confined  at  the  ends  of  a  long 
line,  the  joints  and  fittings  often  become  strained  and  leaky  by  the 
contraction  of  the  pipe  in  cold  weather,  since  the  very  rigidity  of 
the  metal  prevents  it  from  accommodating  itself,  like  ductile  lead, 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

to  the  force  exerted  upon  it ;  so  that  it  should  be  used  intelligently 
to  obtain  the  full  benefit  of  its  good  qualities.  One  last  precaution 
should  be  observed:  at  the  completion  of  a  piece  of  brass-pipe 
plumbing  all  exposed  portions  of  the  metal  must  be  varnished  with 
a  good  coat  of  shellac,  or  it  will  soon  become  corroded  and  unsight- 
ly. This  may  be  made  a  portion  of  either  of  the  plumber's  or  the 
painter's  contract,  but  unless  the  duty  is  distinctly  imposed  upon 
one  or  the  other,  it  will  be  neglected.  Paint,  which  was  once 
generally  applied  to  both  brass  and  lead  pipes,  is  best  omitted,  un- 
less required  for  appearance,  but  it  is  now  not  uncommon  to  bronze 
both  brass  and  lead  pipes  with  silver  or  aluminum  bronze,  which 
retains  its  lustre  a  long  time,  and  is  easily  renewed  when  necessary. 

In  specifying  brass  pipes  for  plumbers'  work,  care  should  be 
taken  to  call  for  annealed  tubing.  Unless  annealed,  the  brass 
tubes,  which  are  formed  under  an  enormous  pressure,  are  subject 
to  internal  strains,  which  often  cause  them  to  split  without  warn- 
ing. It  is  best,  also,  to  specify  that  the  brass  tubing  shall  be  of 
"iron  pipe  sizes,"  the  metal  in  pipes  of  this  sort  being  much  thicker 
than  in  the  so-called  "plumbers'  tubing." 

As  a  cheap  substitute  for  brass  tubing,  where  there  is  reason  to 
fear  the  corrosion  of  lead  pipe  from  the  softness  of  the  water,  or 
its  bursting  from  the  heavy  pressure  under  which  it  is  delivered, 
iron  is  often  used,  galvanized  or  enamelled  in  various 
ways.  It  may  be  obtained  with  a  lining  of  pure  block 
tin,  forming  a  very  strong  and  pure  channel  for  water, 
and  lead-lined  iron  pipe  is  sometimes  used ;  but  the  ordinary  coat- 
ing is  one  of  coal-tar  or  parafnne  enamel,  giving  a  shining  black 
surface.  Whatever  may  be  the  protecting  medium  employed,  the 
unions,  bends,  and  other  fittings  are  treated  with  the  same,  and  if 
well  put  together  the  water  nowhere  comes  in  contact  with  the 
metal.  The  galvanized  or  zinc-coated  pipes  are  less  expensive 
than  those  properly  enamelled,  and  more  durable,  unless  in  acid 
waters. 

The  same  precautions  against  the  straining  of  the  joints  which 
are  necessary  with  brass  pipes  should  be  observed  with  those  of 
iron.  Moreover,  iron  being  a  very  rapid  conductor  of  heat,  cold- 
water  supply-pipes  of  that  metal  will  in  warm,  sultry  weather  con- 
dense a  great  deal  of  water  upon  their  surfaces,  which  trickles 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

down  them  and  may  in  time  cause  serious  injury  to  paper  or  other 
decorations  beneath.  Where  there  is  any  risk  of  this  the  pipes 

should  be  encased  in  a  tubing-  of  zinc,  which  will  catch 
Zinc  Casings 

the  condensed  drops  and  conduct  them  to  a  place  of 

safety.  This  is  even  done  with  lead  and  brass  pipes  in  city  work 
of  the  best  character.  Where  costly  decorations  or  papers  are  in 
danger  of  being  injured  by  a  possible  leak,  it  is  always  advisable, 
and  is  generally  required  of  the  plumber  by  the  best  architects,  to 
enclose  all  supply-pipes  in  zinc  tubes,  which  will  retain  the  jet  from 
a  lead  pipe  burst  by  freezing  or  water-hammer,  or  the  drops  of 
condensed  water,  and  conduct  them  to  a  safe  outlet. 

The  course,  joints  and  fastening  of  all  the  pipes,  whatever  their 
material,  should  be  carefully  observed,  and  the  hand  of  a  skilful  and 
conscientious  plumber  will  be  more  quickly  recognized  in  this  than 
in  any  other  detail  of  the  work.  Such  a  man  can  always  arrange 
his  pipes  so  that  they  will  fall  naturally  into  their  proper  places, 
without  that  dodging  over  or  under  each  other  which  characterizes 
the  "botch's"  work;  his  lines  will  be  perfectly  straight,  and  all 
hot-water  pipes  separated  by  a  small  distance  from  the  cold,  to 
avoid  loss  of  heat  from  one  to  the  other ;  the  supports  will  be  neatly 
put  up,  at  equal  and  small  intervals,  so  that  no  sagging  of  the  pipes 
will  be  possible  between  them ;  and  all  will  be  laid  with  a  continu- 
ous fall  toward  some  faucet  by  means  of  which  the  water  can  be 
thoroughly  drained  from  them. 

Boards  should  be  put  up  by  the  carpenter,  well  secured  to  the 
walls  or  ceilings,  wherever  pipes  are  to  run,  and  similar  ones  fitted 
in  between  the  beams  where  it  is  necessary  to  conceal  them  between 
floor  and  ceiling.  To  these  boards  the  pipes  must  be  attached  at 
intervals  of  about  four  feet  where  they  run  vertically,  two  feet 
where  they  follow  the  underside  of  a  ceiling,  and  six  or  eight  feet 
where  they  simply  lie  on  a  horizontal  surface.  Horizontal  pipes 
should  be  secured  by  stout  brass  bands  screwed  to  the  boards ;  and 
where  several  pipes  run  side  by  side,  a  first-rate  plumber  will  sep- 
arate them  far  enough  to  allow  screws  to  be  put  into  the  band 
between  them.  Vertical  pipes,  in  order  to  prevent  them  from 
creeping  downward  by  alternate  expansion  and  contraction,  must 
be  fixed  in  place  by  hard-metal  "tacks"  soldered  to  the  pipes  and 
screwed  to  the  boards. 


I 
BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

All  joints  in  lead  pipes  should  be  "wiped  joints."  In  old- 
fashioned  plumbing  waste-pipes  were  often  connected  by  "cup- 
joints,"  but  these  are  liable  to  separate,  unless  made  with  special 
care,  and  should  not  be  accepted.  Brass  pipes  should  be  put  to- 
gether with  red  lead,  and  the  cast  brass  fittings  used  with  them 
should  be  examined  for  "sand-holes." 

If  the  workman  shows  a  disposition  to  neglect  any  of  these 
niceties  of  his  art,  he  should  be  always  under  suspicion  of  greater 
errors,  and  should  be  watched  to  see  that  he  does  not  fasten  the 
pipes  in  out-of-the-way  corners  by  means  of  hooks,  or  leave  them 
suspended  from  a  ceiling,  or  between  beams,  by  attachments  so  far 
apart  that  alternate  expansion  and  contraction  will  in  time  cause 
them  to  sag  down,  forming  a  hollow  from  which  the  water  cannot 
be  drawn  off,  so  that  the  pipe  is  likely  to  burst  there  if  the  house 
should  be  left  vacant  in  freezing  weather.  The  opposite  fault,  of 
allowing  the  pipe  to  take  an  upward  bend  in  any  part  of  its  course, 
is  still  more  to  be  avoided.  Such  a  bend,  whether  accidental  or 
made  by  ignorant  intention,  soon  becomes  filled  with  the  air  always 
carried  in  bubbles  through  the  water,  forming  an  "air  trap,"  which 
may  stop  the  passage  of  water  entirely  unless  relieved  by  opening 
the  pipe  at  the  highest  point  of  the  curve. 

The  number  and  courses  of  all  the  pipes  should  be  minutely 
described  in  the  specification.  If,  however,  no  details  are  given, 
as  sometimes  happens,  the  superintendent  will  have  a  little  diffi- 
culty in  deciding  upon  the  arrangement  which  he  can  require  with 
justice  both  to  the  plumber  and  the  owner.  Much  depends  upon 
the  custom  of  the  locality,  and  something  also  upon  the  price  for 
which  the  work  is  to  be  done.  In  Massachusetts  or  New  York, 
for  instance,  under  a  mere  agreement  for  a  "first-class  job,"  the 
plumber  would  be  expected,  without  special  orders,  to  provide 
stop-cocks  in  convenient  positions  for  shutting  off  both  hot  and 
cold  water  from  any  part  of  the  house  at  pleasure,  and  draining 
the  pipes ;  and  in  Massachusetts  he  should  arrange  a  tank  in  the 
roof,  itself  supplied  by  a  rising  main  and  ball-cock  from  the  regu- 
lar house  service,  to  contain  water  for  the  copper  bath-boiler,  and 
carry  up  an  "expansion  pipe"  from  the  highest  part  of  the  hot- 
water  system  to  this  tank,  turning  over  the  edge  just  above  the 
water-line,  so  as  to  allow  steam  and  froth  to  escape  freely ;  and  in 

ii 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

any  large  city  he  would  be  expected  to  put  separate  traps  under 
all  fixtures,  and  provide  air-pipes  to  the  same,  and  to  carry  up 
such  air-pipes,  as  well  as  the  soil-pipes,  above  the  roof ;  and  finally, 
to  fit  up  separate  cisterns  over  each  water-closet,  for  their  exclusive 
supply,  with  nickel-plated  pipes  to  the  closet  and  nickel-plated 
pipes  where  exposed  in  bath-rooms;  and  in  all  States  or  towns 
which  have  ordinances  or  statutes  for  the  regulation  of  plumbing 
work,  the  provisions  of  the  constituted  authority  must  be  taken, 
in  the  absence  of  specific  details,  as  forming  a  part  of  the  plumb- 
er's contract. 

In  New  York  and  elsewhere,  outside  of  New  England,  it  is 
customary  to  fit  up  bath-boilers  without  the  tank  in  the  upper 
story,  with  its  rising  main  and  expansion  pipe;  but  in  this  case 
very  strong  boilers,  usually  of  galvanized  iron,  are  necessary.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said  that  waste  and  supply  pipes  should,  for  any 
kind  of  apparatus,  be  large,  to  secure  speedy  filling  and  discharge, 
and  that  putty  joints,  rubber  washers,  and  inaccessible  floats, 
check-valves  or  other  moving  parts  are  to  be  avoided ;  the  ideal  of 
every  plumbing  appliance  being  a  solid  porcelain  basin,  in  one 
piece,  supplied  by  a  quick  flow  of  water,  and  discharged  by  the 
simplest  means,  through  the  shortest  possible  waste-pipe,  into  a 
thoroughly  aerated  soil-pipe.  At  present,  this  ideal  is  far  from 
being  fully  realized  in  any  form  of  apparatus.  The  nearest  ap- 
proach to  it  is,  perhaps,  the  ordinary  wash-basin, 
8  supplied  through  half-inch  basin-cocks,  and  drained 
through  Ij4-inch  pipe,  with  ij^-inch  S-trap,  ventilated  by  a  pipe 
of  equal  calibre  carried  to  a  main  air-pipe,  with  a  simple  plug  and 
i  7  chain  to  close  the  outlet.  Un- 
fortunately a  basin  must  have  an 
overflow,  to  prevent  accidental 
flooding  of  the  house,  and  the 
satisfactory  arrangement  of  this 
overflow  presents  a  problem 
Fig-  135  which  has  not  yet  been  complete- 
ly solved.  In  ordinary  wash- 
basins a  conduit  is  formed  in  the  porcelain  (Fig.  135),  communi- 
cating with  the  basin,  near  the  top,  by  a  cluster  of  holes,  and  lead- 
ing into  the  outlet.  The  soapy  water  which  escapes  through  the 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

overflow  in  using  the  basin  leaves  a  coating  of  slime,  which  accu- 
mulates in  the  inaccessible  conduit,  and  decomposes,  the  odor  from 
it  escaping  through  the  overflow  strainer  into  the  room.  To 
remedy  this,  the  opening  from  the 
overflow  into  the  basin  is  often  closed 
with  a  removable  grating,  which  can 
be  taken  off,  exposing  an  opening 
large  enough  to  admit  a  brush,  or 
sponge,  attached  to  a  wire.  In  an- 
other form  of  basin  (Fig.  136)  there 
is  no  overflow  opening  in  the  side, 
but  the  main  waste  opening,  which 
is  generally  situated  in  a  recess,  spe- 
cially formed  in  the  porcelain,  in-  Flgt  I3 
stead  of  being  furnished  with  a  plug,  is  closed  by  a  tube,  which 
stands  upright  in  the  basin.  Evidently,  if  the  water  in  the  basin 
rises  to  the  top  of  the  tube,  it  will  flow  over  the  top,  and  thence 
down  through  the  outlet ;  or,  by  lifting  the  tube,  all  the  water  in 
the  basin  will  escape  beneath  it.  This  tube,  or  "standing  waste," 
can  readily  be  cleaned,  and  is  usually  loosely  attached,  so  that  it 
can  be  lifted,  or  turned  around,  but  cannot  be  carried  away,  and 
perhaps  lost.  Theoretically,  the  arrangement  is  good;  but,  in 
practice,  the  space  between  the  standing-waste  tube  and  the  sides 
of  the  recess  in  the  basin  collects  soapsuds,  which  cannot  readily 
be  removed,  and  float  unpleasantly  out  into  the  basin  the  next 

time  it  is  filled.  In  another  form 
of  basin  (Fig.  137),  the  standing 
waste  is  removed  to  the  outside 
of  the  porcelain,  and  is  enclosed 
in  a  large  tube,  the  water  in  which 
communicates  with  that  in  the 
basin,  and  stands  at  the  same 
height.  Although  a  cap  is  usu- 
ally provided,  by  removing  which 
X37  the  overflow  tubes  may  be  cleaned, 

this  is  seldom  done,  and  the  tubes  collect  soapsuds  and  scum,  which1 
return  to  the  basin  through  the  outlet  when  it  is  next  used.  Bath- 
tubs and  pantry-sinks,  both  of  which  must  have  overflows,  present 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

the  same  difficulties,  which  are  treated  in  a  similar  manner.  In 
general,  however,  among  the  innumerable  forms  of  apparatus  in 
the  market,  the  simplest  are  the  best. 

Nearly  all  plumbing  appliances,  including  water-closets,  wash- 
basins, baths,  kitchen-sinks,  pantry-sinks  and  wash-trays,  can  be 
had  in  solid  earthenware  or  porcelain,  or  in  enamelled  iron,  in 
various  styles,  and  at  different  prices.  The  enamelling  of  iron  is 
carried  to  great  perfection,  and  goods  of  this  sort  nearly  equal 
earthenware,  at  smaller  cost.  Where  earthenware  is  used,  par- 
ticularly in  the  case  of  water-closets,  "vitreous  china"  should 
always  be  required,  this  being  a  hard,  semi-vitrified  material,  much 
stronger  and  more  durable  than  the  ordinary  glazed  earthenware. 

For  wash-trays  and  pantry-sinks, 
porcelain  and  enamelled  iron  have 
certain  disadvantages.  In  the  case  of 
pantry-sinks,  they  are  so  -hard  that 
the  breakage  of  china  in  them,  even 
where  wire  or  wooden  gratings  are 
laid  at  the  bottom,  is  perceptibly 
greater  than  with  those  made  of 
sheet-metal,  either  tinned  copper 
Fig.  138  or  German  silver;  while  porcelain 
wash-trays  warp  in  burning,  so  that  they  do  not  fit  closely  to- 
gether, and  the  process  of  transferring  wet  clothes  from  one  tray 
to  another  involves  copious  dripping  on  the  floor  bet\veen  the 
trays,  where,  with  a  set  of  soapstone  or  slate  trays,  there  is  noth- 
ing of  the  kind  to  be  feared.  The  enamelled  iron  wash-trays  fit 
together  more  closely,  and  are  usually  provided  with  a  brass  strip 
to  cover  the' joint  between  them;  but  this  does  not  wholly  prevent 
.dripping,  and  with  either  porcelain  or  enamelled  trays  there  is 
difficulty  in  attaching  a  wringer,  unless  special  provision  is  made 
for  it. 

Every  basin,  sink,  wash-tray,  water-closet  and  bath  must  have 
a  trap  on  its  waste-pipe,  to  prevent  foul  vapors  from 
returning  from  the  sewer  into  the  rooms.  The  orig- 
inal form  of  trap,  which  is  still  among  the  best,  being  washed  clean 
by  the  discharge  through  it,  is  the  S-trap  (Fig.  138),  consisting 
of  a  piece  of  pipe,  bent  in  the  form  of  the  letter  S,  usually  with  a 


Lr— 


L 


Traps 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

brass  screw  set  in  at  the  bottom,  for  removing  sediment.  When 
a  large  quantity  of  water,  however,  is  discharged  through  a  trap 
of  this  form,  so  as  to  fill  the  outlet  completely,  the  descending 
column  leaves  a  vacuum  behind  it,  which  draws  over  the  water  in 
the  trap,  down  to  the  line  L-L,  destroying  its  efficacy  as  a  check 
to  the  ascent  of  foul  air.  To  prevent  this,  an  air-pipe,  or  "back- 
vent,"  must  be  carried  from  the  crown  of  the  trap,  at  V,  to  some 
main  air-pipe,  from  which  it  can  draw  in  air  to  fill  the  vacuum 
behind  any  descending  column  of  water  in  the  outlet  pipe,  without 
sucking  out  the  trapping  water.  This  back-vent  pipe 
is  required  by  law  in  all  large  cities.  For  baths, 
kitchen-sinks  and  pantry-sinks  it  is  usual  to  employ,  instead  of  the 
S-trap,  a  "round  trap,"  consisting 
of  a  cylinder  of  lead,  with  an  inlet 
at  the  bottom,  and  an  outlet  at  the 
top,  and  a  large  brass  trap-screw, 
usually  four  inches  in  diameter, 
through  which  the  hand  can  be  in- 
serted for  cleaning  the  trap.  (Fig. 
139.)  This  trap  screw  may  be  in- 
serted either  in  the  top  or  the  side  Fig.  139 
of  the  trap,  the  advantage  of  placing  it  in  the  side  being  that  the 
leather  washer,  which  is  needed  for  making  it  air  tight,  is  kept  wet 
and  soft  by  the  water  in  the  trap.  Theoretically,  a  round  trap  cannot 
be  siphoned  out  by  the  discharge  of  the  water  through  it,  as  the 
air  drawn  after  a  descending  column  of  water  in  the  outlet  bubbles 
through  the  large  mass  of  water  in  the  trap,  instead  of  pushing  it 
before  it;  but,  in  practice,  such  traps  become  filled  with  grease 
and  slime,  leaving  only  a  passage  from  the  inlet  to  the  outlet,  so 
that  they  siphon  in  the  same  manner  as  an  S-trap,  and  must  be 
back- vented  by  air-pipes  in  the  same  way ;  the  only  real  advantage 
of  the  round  trap  being  the  ease  with  which  it  is  cleaned. 

Shut-off  cocks  generally,  and  basin  and  bath-cocks  in  some 
old  houses,  are  made  with  "ground  plugs,"  which  are  simply 
tapering  plugs  of  brass,  ground  with  emery  into  a 
corresponding  socket,  and  pierced  with  a  hole.     To 
the  top  of  the  plug  is  attached  the  handle  of  the  cock,  by  means  of 
which  the  plug  can  be  turned,  so  that  the  hole  through  it  coincides 


ii66 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


I4I 


with  the  bore  of  the  cock,  allowing  water  to  flow  through ;  or  the 
water  may  be  cut  off  by  turning  the  plug  at  right  angles  with  its 
former  position.     Figs.  140  and  141  show  the  ordinary  shape  of 
ground-plug  "bibb-cocks,"  and  Figs. 
142,  143,  and  144,  explain  the  action 
of  the  pierced  plug.     Such  "ground 
cocks"  have,  however,  the  disadvan- 
tage that,  when  much  used,  particu- 
larly where  the  water  contains  par- 
ticles of  fine  sand,  the  plug  and  socket  become  worn,  allowing 
water  to  pass  even  when  the  cock  is  closed ;  while,  if 
k8  left  unused,  the  parts  corrode  and  stick  together ;  so 
that,  in  modern  work,  they  are  rarely  used  except  for  shut-offs, 
their  place  being  taken  by  "compression,"  or  "screw-down"  cocks, 
in  which  a  brass  spindle,  armed  with  a  leather  or  rub- 
ber washer,  is  brought  down,  either  by  a  screw  or  a 
lever,  upon  the  rim  of  an  opening  through  which  the 
water  flows  on  its  way  to  the  outlet  of  the  cock.   (Fig.  145.)  The 
advantage  of  this  is  that  the  washer,  when  it  becomes  so  worn  as 
to  allow  the  cock  to  leak,  can  readily  be  replaced  by  another,  the 
washer  being  usually  secured  to  the  end  of  the  spindle  merely  by  a 
screw.     To  meet  the  demand  for  novelties,  an  endless 
C°cksinatl°n  va™ety  °f  compression  cocks  may  be  found  in  the  mar- 
ket.   In  many  cases,  particularly  for  baths  and  basins, 
"combination  cocks"  are  used,  which  have  two  handles,  but  only  one 

outlet,  through  which  the  hot  and  cold 
water  are  intended  to  flow  mixed.  In  the 
best  combination  cocks,  where  the  two 
kinds  of  water  are  kept  separate  nearly  to 
the  outlet,  they  will  mix  satisfactorily ; 
but  in  many  combination  cocks,  when 
used  with  hot  water  under  tank  pressure, 
and  cold  water  direct  from  the  main,  as 
is  usual  in  New  England  plumbing,  the 
higher  pressure  of  the  cold  water  pushes 
Fig.  144  back  the  hot  water,  when  both  handles 

are  opened,  so  that  the  two  kinds  can  only  be  drawn  alternately. 
As  combining  various  properties  of  nearly  all  other  plumbing 


Water 
Closets 


Short 
Hopper 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

fixtures,  the  water-closet  requires  special  consideration.  In  gen- 
eral, all  modern  water-closets  consist  of  an  earthenware  basin,  in 
which  a  certain  amount  of  water  is  kept  standing, 
and  from  which  the  contents  can  be 
forced  out  into  the  drain,  through 
some  sort  of  trap,  by  a  discharge  of  water  which 
at  the  same  time  washes  the  sides  of  the  basin. 
The  simplest  of  these  closets  is  the  so-called 
"short  hopper,"  consisting  of  an 
earthenware  or  vitreous  china  basin, 
which  either  has  a  trap  formed  of 
Fig.  145  earthenware  in  one  piece  with  it,  or  stands  upon 
a  lead  or  iron  trap,  to  which  it  is  bolted  (Figs. 
146,  147).  In  either  case,  water  stands  in  the  basin  to  a  height 
fixed  by  the  bend  of  the  trap.  The  upper  edge  of  the  basin  is 
curled  inward,  leaving  either  a  narrow  crevice,  or  a  row  of  holes, 
between  it  and  the  sides  of  the  basin.  The  "flushing-rim"  thus 
formed  is  connected  with  a  water-supply  of  some  sort,  so  that 
water  can  be  discharged  in  a  sheet  around  the  basin,  with  suffi- 
cient force  to  wash  the  contents  of  the  basin  through  the  trap  into 
the  soil-pipe.  In  either  form,  this  is  a  good  and  inexpensive 
closet,  free  from  concealed  cavities  which  may  harbor 
filth.  As  it  presents,  however,  in  its  ordinary  form, 
only  a  circle  of  water  at  the  bottom,  about  four  inches 
in  diameter,  the  sides  of  the  basin  are  apt  to  become  foul,  and 
need  occasional  washing.  To 
avoid  this,  a  form  of  hopper  is 
made  which  has  a  deeper  trap, 
so  that  the  water  stands  at  a 
greater  height  in  the  basin,  and 
presents  a  larger  surface.  This 
type  is  known  as  the  "wash- 
down"  closet,  and  combines  the 
sanitary  advantages  of  the 
short  hopper  with  some  of  its 
own.  It  requires,  however,  a  copious  flush,  an  insufficient  dasK 
of  water  failing  to  remove  the  contents  of  the  basin. 

In  order  to  meet  this  difficulty,  as  well  as  to  lessen  the  noise 


Fig.  146 


i68 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


Siphon  Jet 
Closet 


Fig.  147 


which  attends  the  operation  of  all  closets  dependent  on  the  force 
of  the  flush  for  their  action,  many  closets  have  a  small  orifice 
contrived  in  the  bottom,  and  separately  connected 
w^k  tne  flushing"  supply>  so  that,  at  the  same  moment 
that  the  sides  of  the  basin  are  washed  by  the  water 
admitted  through  the  flushing-rim,  a  jet  of  water  is  thrown  up- 
ward into  the  bottom  of  the  basin, 
assisting  to  lift  its  contents  out  of  the 
trap;  and  the  outlet  of  the  trap  is 
usually  slightly  contracted,  so  that  the 
water  first  thrown  through  it  fills  it 
completely  (Fig.  148).  As  the  mass 
of  water  descends,  it,  therefore,  leaves 
a  vacuum  behind  it  in  the  pipe,  and 
the  air  above  the  water  standing  in 
the  basin,  in  endeavoring  to  reach 
and  fill  the  vacuum,  pushes  before  it  the  contents  of  the  basin. 
The  action  of  these  "siphon-jet"  closets  is  effective,  and  compara- 
tively quiet,  and  they  are  very  popular.  A  different  form,  the 
"Dececo"  closet  (Fig.  149)  obtains  the  siphonic  action  without  the 
aid  of  a  jet,  by  a  sudden  turn  in  the  outlet  from  the  trap,  which 
checks  the  flow  of  the  water  for  a  moment,  causing  it  to  fill  the 
pipe  and  produce  a  vacuum  behind  it,  as  in  the  previous  case.  For 
houses  which  are  left  to  themselves  during  the  winter,  the  ordi- 
nary siphon-jet  closet  has  the  disadvantage  that  the  tube  which 
conveys  water  to  the  jet  formed  in  the 
porcelain  remains  partly  full  of  water 
when  that  in  the  trap  is  sponged  out, 
preparatory  to  leaving  it  for  the  winter ; 
and  the  freezing  of  the  water  in  the  jet 
ruins  the  closet.  Some  makers  arrange 
a  screw  plug,  which  can  be  opened  from 
the  outside,  for  draining  the  jet-tube, 
and  it  can  be  protected  by  removing  the 
water  with  a  rag,  or  small  sponge,  tied  Fig.  148 

to  a  wire,  or  by  filling  it  with  salt ;  but  the  usual  practice  of  plumb- 
ers is  to  take  up  the  closet  altogether,  and  reverse  it,  a  proceeding 
which  is  in  some  ways  objectionable.  In  the  Dececo  closet,  as  in 


.j 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  149 


all  of  the  hopper  or  wash-down  type,  there  is  no  jet  to  clear  out, 
and  a  simple  sponging  out  of  the  trap,  and  plugging  the  outlet 
with  paper,  is  all  that  is  required  to  make  it  safe  against  freezing. 

Still  another  type  of  water- 
closet,  which  is  rather  going  out  of 
use,    is    the    "wash-out"    closet 
(Fig.    150),    which    has    a    trap 
separate  from  the  basin,  and  usu- 
ally under  it,  the  contents  of  the 
basin  being  washed  by  the  flush 
out  of  it,  and  into  the  trap,  through 
an  opening  either  at  the  front  or 
back,  as  the  case  may  be.     The  basin  of  this  closet  contains  a 
large,  though  shallow,  body  of  water,  and  it  is  neat  in 
appearance;  but  the  contents  of  the  basin,  instead  of        closet*"* 
being  removed  with  certainty  beyond  the  trap  as  soon 
as  they  are  discharged  from  the  basin,  may,  if  the  flush  is  insuffi- 
cient, be  carried  only  into  the  house  side  of  the  trap,  there  to  float, 
and  give  off  foul  odors,  which  escape  freely  into  the  room,  al- 
though their  source  is  invisible. 

All  forms  of  water-closet  can  now  be  obtained  with  a  "local 

vent,"  consisting  of  a  tube,  from  one  and  one-half 

,.         r  Local  Vent 

inches  to  four  inches  in  diameter,  extending  from 

the  upper  part  of  the  basin,  just  under  the  seat,  far  enough  to 

enable  a  connection  to  be  made  with  a 
ventilation  flue.  When  a  heated  flue 
is  accessible,  it  is  desirable,  even  in  a 
private  house,  to  connect  the  local  vent 
with  it  ;  and  in  school-houses  and  public 
buildings  it  is  essential  to  do  so,  and  to 
provide  means  for  securing  a  good 
draught  in  the  flue. 

The  weak  point  in  most  water- 
closets  is  their  connection  with  the  soil- 
pipe.  The  short  hopper  with  lead  trap 


Fig.  150 


has  the  most  secure  arrangement,  the  trap  being  in  "metallic  con- 
nection" with  the  soil-pipe,  and  the  joint  between  the  earthenware 
basin  and  the  lead  trap  being  on  the  house  side  of  the  trap,  besides 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

being  readily  accessible.  Other  closets,  of  various  types,  are  made 
with  brass  sleeves,  either  burnt  into  the  porcelain,  or,  more  com- 
monly, bolted  to  it,  which  can  be  soldered  to  the  lead  pipe  connect- 
ing with  the  soil  pipe ;  but  with  closets  in  which  the  trap  is  formed 
in  the  porcelain,  in  one  piece  with  the  basin,  the  ordinary  way  of 
making  connection  with  the  soil-pipe  is  to  caulk  into  the  branch  of 
the  latter,  by  means  of  a  brass  sleeve,  a  lead  pipe,  which  is  brought 
up  through  a  hole  in  the  floor  at  the  spot  where  the  closet  is  to 
stand,  and  "flanged  out,"  by  hammering,  until  the  edge  of  it  forms 
a  flat  ring  around  the  edge  of  the  hole.  Usually,  a  heavy  ring 
of  brass  is  first  put  over  the  lead  pipe,  and  the  latter  is  soldered  to 
it,  so  as  to  form  a  substantial  support  for  the  closet.  The  latter, 
which  has  a  projection  at  the  outlet,  approximately  fitting  the  hole 
in  the  floor,  is  then  set  in  place,  a  mass  of  putty  or  grafting  wax 
being  first  spread  to  receive  it,  and  is  secured  by  means  of  bolts, 
previously  set  in  the  brass  ring,  and  projecting  upward  through 
holes  in  the  foot  of  the  closet,  so  that  a  nut  and  washer  hold  the 
latter  firmly  in  place ;  or,  in  inferior  work,  where  the  brass  ring  is 
not  used,  by  washers  and  large  wood-screws,  driven  into  the  floor- 
boarding.  If  the  puttying  is  insufficient,  or  the  joint  is  opened  by 
settlement,  air  may  escape  from  the  soil-pipe  into  the  room.  In 
some  of  the  more  expensive  closets,  therefore,  the  joint  is  made 
with  brass  sleeves  and  lead  washers,  instead  of  putty ;  but  a  thor- 
oughly good  floor  connection  for  all-porcelain  closets  has  yet  to  be 
devised.  The  connection  between  the  closet  and  the  flush-pipe  is 
made  with  a  brass  coupling;  and  the  local  vent  pipe  usually  has  a 
simple  slip- joint. 

To  supply  a  water-closet  with  the  proper  quantity  of  water, 
under  sufficient  pressure  to  give  it  the  necessary  flushing  action, 
it  is  usual  to  fit  up  over  it  a  small  copper-lined  cistern,  or  tank, 
supplied  through  a  ball-cock,  with  float,  and  discharged  by  a  cis- 
tern-valve, which  is  operated  by  a  chain,  or  rod,  with  a  handle 
near  the  seat.  The  simplest  cistern  valve  consists  of  a  heavy  plug, 
with  a  spindle  to  guide  it,  furnished  with  a  leather  washer,  which 
fits  upon  the  projecting  upper  end  of  the  flush-pipe,  and  is  lifted 
away  from  it  by  a  lever,  to  the  other  end  of  which  is  attached  the 
chain;  but  complications,  in  the  shape  of  air-pipes,  or  other  de- 
vices, for  controlling  the  flow,  and  reducing  noise,  are  usually  in- 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

troduced.  Where  it  is  inconvenient  to  set  the  cistern  at  the  height 
necessary  for  proper  flushing,  which  is  about  seven  feet,  low  cis- 
terns may  be  used.  These  are  small  affairs,  set  just  above  the 
seat,  but,  when  well  made,  they  are  satisfactory  in  operation.  For 
large  buildings,  with  many  closets,  it  is  common  to  use  valves 
under  various  trade  names,  which,  when  opened  by  a  handle,  de- 
liver a  certain  quantity  of  water  into  the  flushing-rim  of  the  closet, 
under  suitable  pressure,  and  then  close  automatically.  By  using 
these,  the  expense  and  complication  of  cisterns,  ball-cocks,  flush- 
pipes  and  air-pipes  are  avoided ;  but  they  are,  perhaps,  less  easily 
repaired,  if  any  accident  should  happen  to  them,  than  a  cistern 
system. 

Whatever  appliances  are  chosen,  the  superintendent  should  see 
that  the  quality  is  that  called  for  in  the  specification.  Porcelain 
goods,  particularly,  are  divided  by  the  dealers  into  three  grades, 
called  A,  B  and  C,  which  vary  materially  in  price.  The  A  goods 
should  be  free  from  any  defects ;  those  of  the  B  grade  will  have 
small  faults,  in  the  way  of  imperfections  in  glazing,  or  surfaces 
warped  in  burning;  and  those  classed  under  C  will  be  still  more 
imperfect,  although  they  should  not  be  cracked,  or  otherwise  un- 
fitted for  use.  Bath-tubs,  sinks,  etc.,  of  enamelled  iron,  are  also 
divided  into  two  classes,  one  of  which  is  guaranteed,  so  that  if  the 
enamel  chips  off  within  three  years,  the  manufacturers  will  replace 
it ;  while  no  responsibility  is  taken  for  goods  not  guaranteed.  In- 
formation as  to  the  guaranteed  patterns  may  be  obtained  from 
dealers,  or  directly  from  the  manufacturers. 

It  is  usual  for  the  plumber  to  "rough  in"  his  work  before  the 
building  is  plastered,  putting  in  place  all  the  iron  waste  and  air- 
pipes  and  preparing  the  connections  for  the  water- 
closets;  and,  when  this  is  done,  the  pipes  must  be 
tested.  The  ordinary  method  of  testing,  and  the  most  efficient 
one,  is  to  close  all  the  open  connections  with  rubber  plugs,  which 
are  expanded  by  a  screw  to  tighten  them,  and  fill  the  entire  system 
of  waste  and  air-pipes  with  water  to  the  top,  either  by  connect- 
ing a  hose  at  the  bottom  with  some  hydrant  or  service-pipe,  or  by 
pouring  in  water  at  the  top.  As  the  soil-pipe  always  extends 
above  the  roof,  it  is  easy  to  see  when  it  is  full,  and  the  superin- 
tendent should  watch  it  for  awhile,  to  observe  whether  the  level  of 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

the  water  falls  in  it.  If  it  remains  constant  for  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  after  the  pipe  is  filled,  the  system  of  piping  may  be  pro- 
nounced tight;  but,  if  it  falls,  there  must  be  a  leak,  which  the 
superintendent  and  the  plumber  should  search  for  at  once.  As 
the  water  in  the  pipes  will  be  under  a  considerable  hydrostatic 
pressure,  imperfect  joints,  or  sand-holes  in  castings,  will  betray 
themselves  by  little  jets.  Defects  in  the  joints  of  cast  iron  pipes 
may  often  be  remedied  by  more  careful  caulking  of  the  lead  in  the 
joint;  but  pipes  with  sand-holes  in  them  must  be  taken  out,  and 
replaced  with  new  ones;  and  the  system  cannot  be  pronounced 
tight,  nor  will  it  be  accepted  by  official  inspectors,  until  it  has  borne 
the  water-test  successfully.  After  this,  the  plumber  usually  leaves 
the  building  until  after  the  plastering  is  completed,  when  he  should 
at  once  be  called  upon  to  finish  his  work,  so  as  not  to  delay  the 
other  mechanics.  When  all  is  done,  and  connection  made  between 
the  water-front  of  the  range  and  the  bath-boiler,  which  the  plumb- 
er's contract  should  require  him  to  do,  the  water  should  be  turned 
into  all  the  pipes,  in  order  that  imperfect  joints  in  the  supply-pipes, 
sand-holes  in  the  fittings,  or  holes  in  lead  pipes  caused  by  driving 
nails  into  them,  may  be  detected  and  remedied. 

If  it  should  be  necessary,  as  sometimes  happens,  to  test  a  drain>- 
age  system  for  leaks  after  all  the  plumbing  work  has  been  com- 
pleted and  when,  in  consequence,  the  connections  cannot 
be  Plugged>  the  easiest  test  to  apply  is  that  with  oil  of 
peppermint.  The  oil  is  sold  expressly  for  the  pur- 
pose, in  two-ounce  vials,  hermetically  sealed  by  melting  the 
glass  together  over  the  mouth.  A  man  is  sent  up  to  the  roof 
with  the  vial  of  oil,  and  after  stopping  up  temporarily  all  back 
vents  or  air-pipes  connected  with  any  part  of  the  drainage  system, 
he  breaks  off  the  top  of  the  vial,  and  pours  the  contents  down  into 
the  soil-pipe,  which  will  as  a  matter  of  course  in  any  modern 
house  project  above  the  roof.  A  pitcher  of  hot  water  is  imme- 
diately handed  up  to  him,  and  he  pours  this  down  after  the 
peppermint,  and  closes  the  mouth  of  the  soil-pipe  by  stuffing  in 
paper  or  rags.  The  peppermint  is  volatilized  by  the  heat  of  the 
water,  and  the  vapor,  unable  to  escape,  penetrates  by  diffusion 
every  part  of  the  syetem.  Meanwhile,  another  man  examines 
all  the  drain,  air,  and  waste  pipes  in  the  house,  and  if  the  opera- 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

tion  has  been  properly  conducted,  the  slightest  odor  of  pepper- 
mint in  the  building  will  be  conclusive  evidence  of  some  defect, 
either  in  a  joint  or  pipe,  which  must  be  at  once  remedied.  It  is 
important  that  the  man  who  carries  and  applies  the  peppermint 
should  not  be  allowed  to  enter  the  house,  as  he  is  sure  to  carry 
with  him  some  trace  of  the  powerful  scent,  which  will  make  the 
test  useless.  After  the  trial  is  over,  the  pipes  above  the  roof  may 
be  unclosed,  and  if  no  leak  has  been  detected,  the  plumbing  can 
be  pronounced  safe.  Plumbers  often  profess  to  apply  this  test, 
but  do  so  in  a  manner  which  makes  the  result  unreliable.  Unless 
the  apertures  of  vent  and  soil  pipes  are  closed,  a  circulation  is 
very  apt  to  exist  between  the  upper  portion  of  the  soil-pipe  and 
the  nearest  air-pipe,  which  will,  especially  if  no  water  is  used 
to  help  the  diffusion  of  the  oil,  carry  off  the  fragrant  vapor 
before  it  can  penetrate  into  the  comparatively  stagnant  atmos- 
phere which  fills  the  lower  portions  of  the  system. 

The  fumes  of  burning  sulphur  are  sometimes  substituted  for 
the  peppermint  vapor,  but  the  application  is  more  troublesome, 
and  the  result  no  more  satisfactory. 

At  or  before  this  stage  in  the  construction  the  furnace  should 
be  put  in,  and  the  cellar  floor  concreted.  If  left,  as  is  often  the 

case,  till  a  later  period,  when  the  kiln-dried  finishings 

a  •        i  i.     \  Furnace 

or  floors  are  in  place,  these  are  very  apt  to  absorb 

dampness  from  the  mass  of  wet  cement  in  the  basement,  and  lose 
their  shape  or  their  glossy  surface. 

We  have  to  deal  with  a  client  who  insists  upon  an  ample  supply 
of  fresh  air  at  all  seasons,  and  have  therefore  advised  him  to  select 
a  furnace  possessing  as  large  a  radiating  surface  as  possible,  in 
order  to  secure  the  delivery  into  his  rooms  in  cold  weather  of  an 
abundant  supply  of  moderately  warmed  air;  and  in  accordance 
with  this  intention  we  have  provided  for  large  hot-air  pipes  and 
registers  everywhere.  That  this  will  involve  greater  expense,  both 
in  the  original  cost  of  the  apparatus  and  in  consumption  of  fuel, 
than  would  be  necessary  for  obtaining  the  same  amount  of  warmth 
by  means  of  a  smaller  volume  of  hotter  air  from  a  furnace  with  less 
radiating  surface,  we  have  frankly  told  him,  but  he  is  wise  enough 
to  think  that  true  economy  lies  in  sacrificing  something  for  the 
sake  of  the  health  and  good  spirits  which  only  fresh  air  can  give. 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

He  is,  indeed,  so  bent  upon  securing  a  perfectly  pure  atmos- 
phere in  his  house  in  winter  as  to  be  quite  alarmed  when  we 
propose  to  him  the  purchase  of  a  cast-iron  apparatus,  and  reads 
to  us  extracts  from  the  circulars  of  various  manufacturers  of 
wrought-iron  furnaces,  which,  as  he  says,  "prove"  that  carbonic 
acid,  carbonic  oxide,  and  other  deleterious  gases  "pass  freely 
through  the  pores  of  cast-iron,"  and  escape  into  the  house.  We 
assure  him  that  this  danger  is  greatly  exaggerated,  if  not  entirely 
imaginary ;  while  the  large  radiating  surface,  which  is  absolutely 
essential  to  the  effect  which  he  desires,  can  be  had  in  only  one  or 
two  costly  forms  of  wrought-iron  furnace,  most  wrought-iron 
furnaces  consisting  simply  of  a  short  cylinder  of  sheet  metal, 
inverted  over  the  fire-pot,  and  presenting  a  very  limited,  but  very 
hot  surface  to  the  air  flowing  past  it.  As  air  can  only  be  warmed 
by  actual  contact  with  a  heated  body,  such  a  furnace,  if  set  in  a 
large  casing,  with  ample  supply  of  air,  instead  of  warming  the 
whole  to  a  moderate  degree  would  heat  a  small  portion  intensely, 
leaving  the  remainder  as  cold  as  ever,  and  the  registers  would 
either  deliver  into  the  rooms  alternate  puffs  of  very  hot  and  very 
cold  air,  or  certain  rooms  only  could  be  heated,  at  the  expense  of 
the  others.  To  be  operated  successfully,  this  sort  of  apparatus 

must  be  fitted  with  a  small  air-chamber,  and  small 
atTrfg'surface  P^Pes  an(^  registers.  The  casing  of  the  air-chamber 

is  then  heated  by  radiation  from  the  dome  of  the 
furnace,  close  by,  and  the  small  volume  of  hot  air  which  passes 
between  the  two  surfaces  is  thoroughly  and  strongly  warmed, 
acquiring  thereby  a  powerful  ascensive  force,  which  throws  it 
easily  in  any  required  direction  through  pipes  of  appropriate  size, 
and  heats  the  rooms  above,  not  by  introducing  a  full  volume  of 
warm  air,  but  by  means  of  a  small  current  of  very  hot  air,  which 
mixes  with  that  already  in  the  apartment,  so  as  to  raise  the  whole 
to  the  required  temperature. 

To  obtain  an  abundant  supply  of  moderately  warm  air,  it  is 

essential,  as  furnaces  are  now  constructed,  to  provide 
at1ngCSurface a  ^ar§"e  air-chamber,  and  distribute  the  smoke-tubes 

and  other  radiating  surfaces  in  it  in  such  a  way  that 
the  air  cannot  pass  through  without  striking  one  or  more  of 
them.  The  air  issuing  from  such  a  furnace  will  all  be  warm, 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  ij$ 

instead  of  partly  cold  and  partly  hot,  as  it  would  be  without  this 
division  of  the  heating  surface;  and  the  quantity  being  greater, 
a  much  lower  temperature  will  suffice  to  produce  the  same  effect 
in  warming  the  rooms  above. 

Most  cast-iron  furnaces  are  designed  with  special  reference  to 
this  end,  which  has  been  recognized  as  desirable  ever  since  heating 
apparatus  first  came  into  use ;  and  many  of  them  secure  it  tolerably 
well.  Unfortunately,  the  castings  are  sometimes  defective,  and 
the  joints  are  subject  in  several  forms  to  separate  or  break  by  the 
effect  of  expansion  and  contraction,  with  the  result  of  allowing 
smoke  and  gas  to  escape  and  mingle  with  the  fresh  air  in  the  pipes. 
We  have,  however,  selected  a  pattern  in  which  the  castings  appear 
on  close  examination  smooth  and  sound,  and  the  joints,  while 
occurring  at  the  most  favorable  points,  are  all  put  together  with 
short  sleeves,  which  allow  of  expansion  and  contraction  without 
harm.  Unlike  most  furnaces,  which  receive  the  air  from  the  cold- 
air  box  a  little  above  the  level  of  the  ash  reservoir,  ours  is  intended 
to  stand  over  a  pit  dug  in  the  cellar  floor,  into  which  the  cold  air  is 
brought  by  an  underground  conduit,  to  circulate  first  beneath  the 
pan  of  ashes  before  it  ascends  among  the  hotter  surfaces  above. 
Unless  the  ground  below  the  cellar  bottom  is  well  drained,  such 
subterranean  conduits  are  liable  to  infiltrations  of  unwholesome 
moisture,  and  this  point  should  be  determined  before  the  choice  of 
apparatus  is  made.  The  air  trunk  is  made  of  brick,  with  brick 
bottom,  plastered  with  cement,  and  covered  with  flag-stones.  The 
pit  into  which  it  opens  is  walled  with  brick ;  the  same  wall  being 
extended  upward  if  the  furnace  is  to  be  "brick-set,"  or  forming 
merely  the  foundation  for  the  sheet-iron  casing  if  the  "portable'7 
variety  is  used.  A  brick  pier  in  the  centre  serves  to  support  the 
heavy  castings  above.  Into  the  further  end  of  the  brick  trunk  is 
cemented  the  cold-air  box,  of  iron  or  wood,  which  brings  air  to 
the  furnace  from  a  window  or  other  opening. 

The  superintendent  must  see  that  the  cold-air  box  is  not  made 
too  small.  The  obvious  rule  for  determining  the 
proper  size  is  that  it  should  be  capable  of  conveying 
into  the  furnace-chamber  as  much  air  as  is  to  be 
drawn  out  by  means  of  registers ;  or,  to  put  it  in  another  way,  that 
the  capacity  of  the  cold-air  box  should  be  equal  to  that  of  all  the 


176  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

hot-air  pipes  which  will  ever  be  in  use  at  one  time,  less  one-sixth, 
which  represents  the  gain  in  volume  which  the  air  acquires  by 
expansion  in  passing  through  the  furnace.  In  our  present  ex- 
ample, the  registers  in  the  parlor,  dining-room,  hall,  and  staircase- 
hall  are,  for  the  sake  of  insuring  an  abundant  ventilation,  sup- 
plied through  circular  tin  pipes,  twelve  inches  in  diameter.  Two 
chambers  in  the  second  story  have  ten-inch  pipes,  two  have 
eight-inch,  and  the  bath-room  has  a  six-inch  supply.  The  aggre- 
gate sectional  area  of  these  will  be,  expressed  in  square  feet, 

(i2  + 12  + 12  + 12  +  (ft)2  +  (£)2  +  (%Y  +  (%r  +  (^)2 

X  .7854  =  5.13  square  feet.  Six-sevenths  of  5.13  will  be  4.39 
square  feet,  and  this  will  be  the  necessary  minimum  sectional  area 
of  the  cold-air  conduit  to  insure  a  supply  of  warm  air  at  each  of 
the  nine  registers,  in  case  they  are  all  open  at  once,  as  they  should 
generally  be.  If  the  cold-air  box  is  made  smaller  than  this  calcu- 
lation would  require,  the  flow  of  warm  air  at  the  registers  will  be 
feeble  and  uncertain,  or  "wiredrawn,"  or  perhaps  at  some  of  them 
it  may  cease  entirely,  or  even  be  reversed  by  the  draught  of  the 
longer  pipes,  which,  unable  to  obtain  through  the  contracted  cold- 
air  box  the  quantity  which  they  require,  draw  down  through  the 
registers  nearest  the  furnace  an  additional  supply. 

Where  so  liberal  a  provision  of  fresh  air  is  to  be  made,  it  is 

particularly  necessary  to  see  that  the  outer  opening  of  the  supply- 

.  conduit  is  not  so  situated  as  to  be  unfavorably  acted 

Air-Supply 

upon  by  the  wind.  It  is  usual  to  place  the  opening 
toward  the  north  or  west,  as  the  coldest  winds  come  from  those 
points,  and  while  they  blow  the  air  is  drawn  through  the  furnace 
with  greater  rapidity  than  usual,  and  if  fire  enough  is  kept  up,  the 
supply  of  warm  air  at  the  registers  is  correspondingly  increased. 
There  is,  however,  under  these  circumstances,  some  danger  that  a 
high  wind  may  drive  the  air  through  the  conduit  so  rapidly  that  it 
cannot  stay  long  enough  to  get  warmed  on  the  passage,  and  blows 
out  from  the  registers  in  a  chilly  stream ;  and  to  guard  against  this 
a  slide-damper  is  usually  inserted,  which  can  be  partially  closed  to 
temper  the  force  of  the  incoming  blast;  but  if  a  change  then  takes 
place  in  the  direction  of  the  breeze,  the  furnace  is  left  without  its 
needful  supply  of  air.  Occasionally  the  single  inlet  proves  to  be 
the  source  of  still  worse  troubles.  If,  while  it  remains  open,  a 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


177 


violent  wind  should  spring  up  from  the  quarter  opposite  to  that 
toward  which  it  faces,  the  partial  vacuum  which  always  exists  on 
the  lee  side  of  a  building  may  become  so  decided  as  to  cause  air 
from  within  the  house  to  flow  toward  it  by  the  most  direct  chan* 
nel,  which  will  be  downward  through  the  registers,  into  the  air- 
chamber  of  the  furnace,  and  thence  by  means  of  the  cold-air  box 
to  the  outside.  By  this  reversal  of  the  ordinary  course,  not  only 
are  the  rooms  deprived  of  heat,  but  the  air  drawn  from  them  at  a 
comparatively  high  temperature  becomes  intensely  hot  in  passing 
again  over  the  radiating  surfaces  of  the  furnace,  and  may  even, 
if  the  cold-air  box  is  of  wood,  be  the  means  of  setting  this  on  fire, 
and  with  it  the  house  itself.  This  is  a  much  more  common  acci- 
dent than  most  persons  imagine,  and  safety  as  well  as  comfort 
make  it  important  to  guard  against  the  causes  which  may  occa- 
sion it. 

The  simplest  way  of  preventing  reversed  currents  in  the  cold- 
air  box  is  to  give  it  two  openings  to  the  outer  air,  as  nearly  as 
possible  opposite  to  each  other ;  then,  whatever  may  be  the  direc- 
tion of  the  wind,  the  air  cannot  be  drawn  out  of  the  furnace.  It 
may,  however,  still  blow  through  the  registers,  and  a  still  better 
mode  is  to  carry  the  cold-air  box  entirely  across  the  building,  at  a 
little  distance  from  the  furnace,  opening  to  the  outside  at  each  end, 
drawing  from  this  the  supply  to  the  furnace  by  means  of  a  short, 
but  sufficiently  capacious  pipe,  opening  into  the  main  conduit,  at 
right  angles  to  it.  Then  the  wind  may  blow  at  will  through  the 
main  trunk,  without  affecting  the  current  in  the  short  pipe,  which 
will  continue  to  draw  at  all  times  just  the  supply  that  the  furnace 
needs,  and  no  more. 

Whether  the  cold-air  box  shall  be  made  of  wood  or  metal  is  a 
question  to  be  decided  according  to  the  circumstances  of  each  case. 
Galvanized  iron  has  the  great  advantage  of  being 
impermeable,  so  that  no  cellar  air  can  be  mixed  with    colcf-Air  Box 
the  pure  current  from  out  of  doors  on  its  passage 
through  the  furnace  and  the  pipes,  and  of  being  fire-proof,  so  that 
there  will  be  no  danger,  however  hard  the  wind  may  blow,  of 
having  the  building  set  on  fire  by  an  unexpected  back  draught; 
but  it  is  very  expensive,  and  those  who  wish  to  secure  its  advan- 
tages must  pay  for  them.     On  explaining  the  matter  to  our  client, 

12 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

we  find  that  even  his  enthusiasm  for  fresh  air  is  a  little  damped  at 
learning  that  a  galvanized-iron  air-box  for  his  furnace  would  cost 
more  than  the  furnace  itself,  and  he  takes  the  question  under  con- 
sideration for  a  few  days;  but  an  inspection  of  the  wooden  air- 
boxes  in  the  houses  of  his  friends  shows  them  to  be  full  of 
crevices,  sometimes  large  enough  to  admit  the  hand,  and  in  all 
cases  quite  capable  of  allowing  an  unlimited  amount  of  cellar  air 
and  dust  to  be  drawn  into  the  furnace  and  discharged  into  the 
rooms  above,  so  that  he  finally  declares  in  favor  of  an  impervious 
conduit  at  any  cost. 

The  concreting  of  the  cellar  floor  is  generally  done  before  the 
furnace  is  set,  to  avoid  spattering  the  iron  or  brickwork  with 
mortar,  but  all  air  conduits,  ash  pits,  and  other  work 
below  the  floor  level  should  be  completed,  to  avoid 
breaking  into  the  concrete  coating  subsequently.  The  thickness 
of  the  stratum  should  be  determined  by  circumstances.  On  very 
soft  soil  four  to  six  inches  may  be  necessary  to  prevent  settlement 
and  cracks,  but  under  ordinary  conditions  it  may  with  safety  be 
made  three  inches  thick.  If  less  than  this  the  falling  of  heavy 
weights  upon  it,  or  long-continued  movement  on  it,  may  break  it, 
and  when  once  fractured  it  crumbles  and  deteriorates  rapidly. 
Only  the  very  best  fresh  cement  should  be  used,  otherwise  the 
concrete  will  be  weak,  and  attrition  will  reduce  it  easily  into  dust. 
The  proper  proportion  of  ingredients  is  one  shovelful  of  cement 
to  two  of  sand,  first  well  mixed  together,  and  then  quickly  stirred 
up  with  three  shovelfuls  of  screened  pebbles  or  broken  stone,  and 
immediately  spread  upon  the  floor.  The  country  masons,  to 
whom  a  cellar  without  water  in  it  in  spring  would  seem  almost 
abnormal,  generally  give  the  concrete  an  inclination  to  some  point 
from  which  it  can  be  drained  away  to  the  outside,  but  we  do  not 
intend,  and  if  our  directions  have  been  thoroughly  enforced  we 
need  not  fear,  that  any  water  will  penetrate  our  walls,  and  no 
provision  is  therefore  necessary  for  carrying  it  off.  After  the 
furnace  is  set  and  the  concreting  finished,  and  while 
the  plumber  is  completing  his  work,  the  joinery  of 
the  house  will  be  going  on.  The  first  step  is  usually  the  setting 
of  the  door-frames,  and  the  superintendent  will  need  to  refresh  his 
memory  in  regard  to  the  specified  sizes  and  heights  of  the  doors, 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

and  measure  each  frame  as  it  is  set,  or  risk  finding,  too  late,  that 
transpositions  of  the  most  annoying  kind  have  been  made  in  them. 

The  frames  are  also  very  apt  to  be  set  out  of  square   , 

,_.  x  11  11       Door-Frame 

(Fig.  151),  so  that  the  door  must  be  subsequently 

bevelled  off  to  fit  them,  giving  a  slovenly  appearance  to  the  whole 
work.  This  should  be  provided  against  by  rigid  testing  with  the 
try-square  and  plumb-rule.  Pocket-rules  are  sold  at  the  hard- 
ware stores,  containing  a  level,  and  a  folding  steel  blade,  which 
can  be  adjusted  so  as  to  form  nearly  a  right  angle,  and  although 
their  usefulness  would  be  much  increased  if  they  were  more  accu- 
rately made,  the  young  architect  will  find  them 
of  service.  In  default  of  some  such  tool,  the 
diagonals  of  the  frame  may  be  measured  with  a 
string,  or  a  piece  of  wood:  if  they  agree  the 
frame  is  rectangular,  though  not  necessarily 
plumb. 

The  height,  width,  and  rectangularity  of  the 
frames  once  verified,  the  position  of  the  rebates  Fis-  X5i 

should  be  noted  to  make  sure  that  the  doors  will  be  hung  on  the 
side  intended.  It  is  usual  to  mark  the  swinging  of  the 
doors  on  the  plans,  but  workmen  rarely  trouble  them- 
selves  to  look  at  the  drawings  for  information  in  re- 
gard to  such  matters,  and  after  it  is  too  late  to  change  them  the 
doors  are  very  apt,  especially  in  inferior  rooms,  to  be  found  open- 
ing across  stairs  or  passage-ways,  against  gas  brackets,  or  in  some 
other  inconvenient  manner.  While  considering  this  point  the 
superintendent  may  make  sure  that  the  doors  will  be  hung  on  the 
proper  edge,  as  well  as  the  right  side  of  the  partition,  by  marking 
the  position  of  the  hinges  on  the  frames  in  accordance  with  the 
plans,  or  perhaps  modifying  these  if  circumstances  render  it  ad- 
visable. 

Next  comes  the  application  of  the  "standing  finish," — archi- 
traves, wainscotings,  and  bases.     Modern  moulded  work  is  almost 
invariably  cut  with  revolving  knives,  under  which  it  is 
drawn  by  fluted  cylinders,  whose  edges,  in  order  to       Finish"9 
obtain  a  firm  grip  of  the  piece,  press  so  strongly 
against  it  as  to  cause  slight  transvere  indentations  on  the  promi- 
nent portions,  varying  from  a  quarter  to  a  third  of  an  inch  apart, 


jg0  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

which  injure  its  appearance  very  seriously  unless  the  marks  are 
subsequently  smoothed  off  with  sand-paper.  For  hard  wood  even 
this  will  not  be  enough,  and  the  flat  surfaces  should  be  dressed 
with  an  ordinary  plane  to  prevent  the  reappearance 
of  the  ridges  after  polishing.  Sheathing  boards  and 
mill-wrought  stock  of  all  kinds  for  good  interior 
work  should  be  smoothed  with  the  plane  in  the  same 
way.  This  adds  considerably  to  the  expense,  and 
cheap  contractors  will  shirk  it  if  they  can,  but  it 
should  be  insisted  upon. 

Another  way  in  which  the  inferior  class  of  build- 
ers often  try  to  gain  some  advantage  for  themselves 
Fig.  152        js  by  "splicing"  architrave  mouldings   (Fig.   152), 
out  of  short  pieces.     As  the  mouldings  come  from  the  mill  in 
lengths  of  ten  to  fourteen  feet,  there  is  considerable  waste  in 
cutting  unless  some  mode  is  provided  for  utilizing 
MoiHdings      ^e  s^ort  pieces>  but  the  appearance  of  a  spliced  archi- 
trave is  so  bad  as  to  make  it  inadmissible  in  good 
work.     Horizontal  finish,  such  as  bases,  wainscots,  wooden  cor- 
nices, and  chair-rails,  must,  however,  be  spliced,  and  care  will  be 
necessary  to  see  that  the  adjoining  pieces  are  properly  matched, 
and  that  the  joints  do  not  come  in  conspicuous  situations. 

The  stairs  will  need  constant  attention  to  secure  a  satisfactory 
result.     Before  any  work  is  done  upon  them,  the  superintendent 
should  examine  the  plans  to  make  sure  that  none  of 
the  flights  are  too  narrow  or  too  steep,  and  that  there 
is  ample  head-room  where  any  passage  is  intended  beneath  them. 
The  draughtsmen  who  prepare  working  plans  from  the  architect's 
sketches  sometimes  fail  to  comprehend  fully  the  structure  which 
their  drawings  indicate,  or  forget  to  make  the  necessary  allowance 
for  thickness  of  floors,  stair-timbers,  and  landings.     Where  a 
passage-way  or  flight  of  stairs  is  planned  under  another  flight,  the 
clear  vertical  height  beneath  the  latter  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  counting  the  number  of  risers  to  the  point 
where  the  head-room  is  to  be  calculated,  multiplying  this  quantity 
by  the  height  of  each  riser  as  found  by  dividing  the  total  distance 
from  floor  to  floor  by  the  whole  number  of  risers,  and  subtracting 
from  the  dimension  so  found  at  least  eighteen  inches,  which  will 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


181 


represent  the  vertical  measurement  from  the  top  of  the  tread,  just 
over  the  riser,  to  the  under  side  of  the  plastering,  in  ordinary 
stairs.  If  the  flight  is  steep,  twenty  inches,  or  even  more,  must  be 
taken,  while  with  long,  straight  flights  it  i: 
often  necessary  to  reinforce  the  stringers 
with  whole  timbers,  or  "carriage  tim- 
bers" (Fig.  153),  set  parallel  with 
them,  but  at  a  sufficient  distance 
below  to  clear  the  inner  angle 
of  the  steps,  which  will  in- 
crease the  total  vertical  depth 
between  top  of  tread  and 
under  side  of  plaster  to  thirty 
inches  or  more.  It  should  be  remembered  also  that  a  person  in 
descending  a  flight  of  stairs  usually  leans  forward,  and  that  the 
headway  under  a  trimmer  beam  which  appears  ample  where  the 
vertical  height  alone  is  taken  may  prove  insufficient  in  execution. 
Inferior  stairways  often  show  defects  of  planning  independent 
of  miscalculations  in  regard  to  head-room.  It  is  not  uncommon 
to  see  such  stairs  indicated  as  are  shown  in  Figure  154,  where  a 
person  descending  in  the  dark  might,  with  a  single  step,  from  S  or 
X,  fall  three  or  four  feet.  The  stair-builder  would  probably  take 
upon  himself  the  responsibility  of  changing  the  flight  from  the 


Fig.  154  Fig.  155 

"dog-legged"  form  shown  in  Figure  154  to  an  "open  newel" 
(Fig.  155),  adding  a  square  "step  in  the  well,"  W,  and  putting 
two  instead  of  three  "winders"  in  each  turn,  thus  making  the 
stairs  comparatively  safe  and  convenient,  though  narrower  than 
the  first  plan  intended;  but  it  is  unsafe  to  depend  upon  his 
thoughtfulness  to  correct  errors.  Another  fault  often  seen  in 
back  stairs  is  the  filling  up  of  the  well  on  one  floor  by  a  closet, 


1 82 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


while  the  stairway  below  is  left  open  (Fig.  156) .  The  point  of  the 
floor,  P,  is  in  this  case  apt  to  project  over  the  stairs  in  dangerous 
proximity  to  the  heads  of  those  passing  up  or  down,  and  should 
be  protected  by  sheathing,  at  least  on  one  side,  down  to  the  rail. 

The  steps  should  not  be  too  steep.     For  inferior  stairs  the 
risers  may  be  eight  inches  and  the  treads  9  inches,  to  which  the 
nosing  will  add  1^2  inches  more,  making  the  whole 
onSsers        width  of  the  step  10^   inches;  but  this  should  be 
regarded  as  the  limit.     As  the  height  of  the  risers  is 
diminished,  for  superior  staircases,  the  width  of  tread  must  be 
increased ;  the  best  rule  being  that  the  product  obtained  by  multi- 
plying the  measure  in  inches  of  rise  and  tread  together  should  not 

—  be  less  than  70,  or  more  than  75. 
Seven  and  a  half  by  ten  inches  is 
suitable  for  ordinary  cases;  seven 
by  ten  and  a  half  is  unusually  easy, 
and  six  by  twelve  gives  an  air  of 
old-fashioned  luxury  to  a  staircase. 
Some  ancient  mansions  possess 
flights  which  rise  only  five  or  five 


Fig.  156 


and  a  half  inches  at  each  step,  but  these  are  hardly  comfortable  to 
our  unaccustomed  feet. 

The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  staircase  as 
executed  will  correspond  with  the  plans,  or,  if  mistakes  in  framing 
or  miscalculations  in  regard  to  headway  should  have  rendered 
this  impossible,  that  the  difficulty  is  remedied  in  the  best  way. 
It  is  a  very  common  experience  with  young  architects  to  be  obliged 
to  modify  their  designs  on  this  account,  and  their  ingenuity,  as 
well  as  the  patience  of  the  stair-builder,  will  often  be  severely 
taxed  to  extricate  themselves  with  credit  from  an  unexpected 
difficulty.  The  stair-builder  himself  is  liable  to  errors,  and  his 
work  should  be  examined  with  particular  care  at  the  outset,  in 
order,  if  necessary,  to  set  him  right  before  the  progress  of  the 
building  has  made  it  difficult  and  expensive  to  remedy  faults 
which  would  have  been  trifling  if  discovered  earlier. 

Even  in  putting  up  the  rough  "stringers"  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  see  mistakes  make,  which  if  passed  over  will  spoil  the  effect  of 
the  finished  structure. 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

Although  many  architects  mark  the  calculated  height  of  the 
risers  on  their  staircase  plans,  it  seldom  happens  that  the  actual 
and  theoretical  distance  from  floor  to  floor  agree  exactly,  and 
a  pole  should,  in  practice,  always  be  cut  to  the  exact  length 

on  the  spot,  and  this 
divided     into     equal 
parts,  corresponding 
to    the    number    of 
risers    required.      From 
this  measure  the  notches  in 
the  strings  can  be  set  out  with 
accuracy.      (Fig.    157.)      Without 
such  precaution,  the  strings  may,  on 
arrival  at  the  building,  be  found  a  fraction 
Fig.  157  of  an  inch  too  low,  so  that  the  topmost  step 

must  be  blocked  up  to  a  greater  height  than  the  rest  in  order  to 
gain  the  floor.  (Fig.  158.)  More  frequently,  the  string  will  be 
found  to  have  been  cut  too  long,  and  one  of  the  steps  must  be 
made  shallower  than  the  rest,  or  the  strings  must  be  allowed  to 
lean  backward.  (Fig.  158.)  Such  misfits  should  be  sharply 
looked  out  for,  and  condemned  immediately  if  detected.  The 
cutting  of  a  new  set  of  strings  is  a  small  matter,  while  stairs  of 
varying  height,  or  out  of  level,  are  dangerous  as  well  as  unsightly. 

Stair-builders  and  carpen- 
ters often  content  themselves 
with  very 
frail    sup- 
ports to 
their  work,  es- 
pecially   on   land- 
ings,  and   this   point 
should  receive  careful  at- 
tention.    After  all  is  ready 
for  the  steps,  the  risers  are  some- 
Fig.  158  Fig.  159        times  first  put  on,  the  back  edges  of 
the  treads  inserted  into  grooves  cut  for  them  in  the  risers,  and 
the  cove  mouldings  put  in  place  (Fig.  160),  and  glued,  securing 
the  whole  together.     Generally,  however,  the  risers  and  treads 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

are  put  together,  blocked  and  glued  at  the  shop,  and  the  steps 
brought  complete  to  the  building,  ready  for  setting  in  place.  In 
this  case  the  mouldings  are  not  ploughed  into  the  under  side  of  the 
treads,  but  are  simply  nailed  into  the  angle  formed 
by  the  riser  and  the  nosing.  (Fig.  161.) 

Whether  the  necessary  connec- 
tions between  the  steps  themselves 
shall  be  made  by  grooving  the 
inner  edge  of  the  tread  into  the 
face  of  the  riser  of  the  next  step 
above,  as  shown  in  Figure  160, 
or  by  inverting  the  process,  and 
ploughing  the  lower  edge  of  the 


Fig.  160 


Fig.  162 


riser  into  the  top  of  the  tread  below  (Fig.  162),  is  a  matter  about 
which  the  practice  of  stair-builders  varies.  Those  who  choose 
the  latter  mode  justify  their  preference  on  the  ground  that  by  the 
shrinkage  of  the  timbers  and  settlement  of  the  strings,  the  support 
may  be  taken  away  from  the  inner  edge  of  the  tread,  throwing,  if 
this  is  grooved  into  the  riser,  whatever  weight  may  come  upon  it 
on  the  tongue,  which  is  liable  to  split  off  (Fig.  163),  while  by  the 
other  method  the  tread  is  free  to  follow  its  supporting  timber,  the 
only  result  of  the  movement  being  the  partial  drawing  out  of  the 
tongue  in  the  riser.  (Fig.  164.) 

In  practice,  however,  the  first  system  is  preferable  for  stairs 
over  which  the  traffic  is  as  light  as  is  usual  in  dwelling-houses. 
When  the  risers  are  tongued  down  into  the  treads,  the  tongue 
necessarily  escapes  the  painting  or  other  finish,  so  that  when  it 
begins  to  draw  out,  a  streak  of  a"  different  color  is 
exposed  at  the  bottom  of  each,  form- 
ing a  very  conspicuous  defect. 


The  moulded  "nosing"  of  the  steps 


should  be  formed  as  indicated  on  the 
sectional  sketches,  the  front  of  the 
tread  being  rounded,  and  ploughed 
beneath  for  the  insertion  of  the  upper 
edge  of  the  riser.  In  "open  string"  stairs  (Fig.  165),  where  the 
level  top  of  the  tread  appears  at  the  end,  the  nosing  is  continued 
across  it  by  means  of  a  piece  of  wood  moulded  to  the  full  shape, 


Fig.  163 


Fig.  164 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

one  end  mitering  into  the  angle  left  for  the  purpose  at  the  front 
corner  of  the  tread,  while  the  other  "returns  on  itself"  at  a  point 
vertically  under  the  edge  of  the  next  riser.  Before 
these  pieces  are  finally  put  on,  the  dovetails  at  the  edge 
of  the  tread,  intended  to  hold  the  balusters,  should  be 
cut  out.  The  balusters  may  then  be  fitted  in,  and  the  nosing  being 
nailed  firmly  in  place  holds  all  secure.  The  best  stair-builders 
tack  the  pieces  temporarily  together,  so  as  to  insure  a  perfect  fit, 
before  the  final  nailing.  Builders  of  the  poorest  class  sometimes 
dispense  with  the  dovetailing  of  the  balusters,  and  simply  fasten 
them  in  place  by  a  nail  driven  diagonally  through  the  foot  into  the 
tread  after  the  nosing  is  finished :  this  gives  a  weak  as  well  as 


uneven  balustrade,  and  should  never  be  permitted.  The  upper 
ends  of  the  balusters  are  almost  always  secured  with  nails  to  the 
hand-rail,  even  in  the  best  work. 

With  regard  to  the  finish  around  the  inner  ends  of  the  stairs, 
the  practice  of  different  localities  varies  somewhat.  Whether  it 
consists  of  a  wainscot  or  a  simple  base,  it  is  in  many  places  custom- 
ary to  trace  upon  the  lower  portion  the  exact  profile  of  the  stairs 
(Fig.  1 66) ,  including  the  nosings,  and  sink  it  to  a  depth  of  half  an 
inch  by  means  of  chisels  and  gouges.  This  "wall  string"  base  or 
wainscot  is  fixed  to  the  walls  before  the  stairs  are  put  up,  and  the 
ends  of  the  steps,  as  fast  as  put  on,  are  "housed"  into  the  grooves 
ready  to  receive  them.  If  nicely  done,  this  is  a  strong  and  hand- 


i86 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


some  mode  of  fitting,  but  the  workmanship  must  obviously  be  very 
careful  and  accurate. 

In  New  England  a  different  mode  is  adopted,  rather  easier  in 
execution :  for  this,  the  treads  and  risers  of  the  steps  are  grooved, 
before  putting  together,  about  y%  of  an  inch  from  the  inner  end, 
and  the  base  or  lower  member  of  the  wainscot  is  roughly  "scribed" 
to  the  profile  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  steps,  and  the  lower  edge 
then  cut  away  so  as  to  form  a  tongue.  After  the  steps  are  all 
secured  in  place,  the  base  is  applied  and  driven  home  with  a  mallet. 
The  proper  termination  of  the  rail  at  the  top  of  the  staircase, 
where,  being  no  longer  continued  upward,  it  must  be  carried  across 
to  stop  against  the  wall,  is  a  matter  not  always  considered  when 
the  drawings  and  specifications  are  made.  The  best  finish  is  ob- 
Half  Posts  tamed  by  placing  a  half-post  against  the  wall ;  but  if 
this  is  not  mentioned  in  the  contract  documents,  a 
makeshift,  consisting  of  a  round  cast-iron  plate,  with  a  socket  to 
receive  the  rail,  and  screwed  to  the  wall,  is  likely  to  be  substituted 
for  it. 

As  soon  as  the  treads  and  landings  are  in  place,  the  broken 
boards  of  the  under  floor,  and  the  places  cut  for  the 
plumbers  and  gas-fitters,  should  be  repaired,  and  the 
laying  of  the  upper  floors  may  begin.  This  is  usually  commenced 
in  the  top  most  story,  in  order  that  each  floor,  as  completed  and 
planed  off,  may  be  swept  out  and  the  rooms  locked.  For  floors 
intended  to  be  carpeted  spruce  forms  the  ordinary 
material.  It  is  cheap,  and  has  the  advantage  of  being 
very  free  from  knots  and  defects,  so  that  a  room  laid  with  it  looks 
clean  and  handsome.  The  adhesion  of  the 
annual  rings  is,  however,  very  slight  in 
spruce  timber,  and  boards  taken  off  the 
outside  of  the  log  (Fig.  167),  which  may 
be  recognized  by  their  grain  or  "figure," 
like  Figure  168,  are  liable,  after  being 
dried  by  a  winter's  furnace  heat,  to  splin- 
ter up  in  a  most  annoying  manner;  or  if 
the  rings  do  not  separate,  the  boards  are 
likely  to  curl  up  (Fig.  169),  forming  ridges  which  rapidly  cut  the 
carpets  laid  over  them.  Both  these  defects  will  be  avoided  by 


Upper  Floors 


Fig.  167 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

choosing  spruce  boards  in  which  the  figure  consists  rather  of  fine 
parallel  lines,  indicating  that  the  annual  rings  are  divided  in  a 
direction  nearly  par- 
allel to  the  radius  of 
the  trunk  (B  Fig. 
167.)  Very  white, 
clear  boards  with  no 
apparent  figure  are 


Fig.  168 


often  cut  from  sap- 


Sapling 
Spruce 


Pine 


Blue  Sap 


Fig.  169 

ling  trees,  but  are  soft,  and  liable  to  excessive  shrink- 
age. In  the  Middle  States  pine  is  the  favorite  floor- 
ing material.  It  is  softer  than  spruce,  and  little  liable  to  curl  or 
splinter.  Clear  pine,  however  is  very  costly,  and 
the  second  quality,  which  is  generally  used,  contains 
small  knots  and  streaks  of  "blue  sap,"  so  that  a  floor  finished 
with  it  is  not  quite  so  agreeable  to  the  eye  as  one  of 
good  spruce.  For  a  somewhat  better  flooring  than 
either  spruce  or  second  quality  white  pine,  North  Carolina  pine  is 
extensively  used.  This  is  harder,  and  less  liable  to  splintering, 
than  spruce ;  and,  although  the  boards  made  of  it  contain  a  large 
proportion  of  white  sap,  and  it  is  therefore  inferior  in  appearance 
to  Georgia  pine,  it  is  much  cheaper.  For  a  house  of  moderate 
cost,  North  Carolina  pine,  in  narrow  strips,  matched  and  blind- 
nailed,  makes  a  floor  which  is  presentable  without  carpeting  and 
can  be  polished  with  wax. 

The  mode  of  laying  the  boards  varies  with  the  locality.  The 
New  England  carpenters,  having  a  difficult  material  to  deal  with, 
have  learned  to  treat  it  with  great  skill.  The  upper  floors  of 
spruce,  in  the  better  rooms,  are  usually  specified  to  be 
laid  with  boards  not  over  four  inches  wide.  Attics 
may  have  six-inch  boards,  but  wider  ones  than  these 
are  only  permissible  in  closets  and  store-rooms.  The  boards, 
whatever  their  width,  are  "jointed,"  or  planed  on  the  edges  until 
these  are  made  absolutely  straight  and  parallel,  then  stacked  in  the 
kiln  or  "dry  house"  until  all  moisture  is  evaporated  from  them, 
and  brought  directly  from  the  dry-house  to  the  building.  Begin- 
ning at  one  side  of  the  room,  they  are,  or  should  be,  laid  in 
"courses,"  from  end  to  end  of  the  room,  breaking  joints  as  fre- 


1 88  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

quently  as  possible.  Where  all  the  boards  are  of  exactly  the  same 
width,  as  should  be  the  case  in  the  best  rooms,  the  joints  may,  and 
should  be,  broken  at  every  course,  but  as  this  involves  some  waste 
of  stock,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  make  "straight  joints"  through 
three  or  four  courses,  before  the  varying  widths  of  the  boards  on 
each  side  of  the  joint  will  add  up  to  an  equal  sum,  so  as  to  admit 
of  its  being  crossed  by  the  next  course.  A  straight  joint  of  more 
than  four  courses  should  not  be  allowed  in  rooms  intended  to  be 
carpeted,  for  fear  of  causing  a  ridge ;  and  it  is  hardly  necessary  to 
say  that  all  heading  joints  should  come  upon  a  beam.  "Flooring 
clamps"  are  used  tq  force  each  board  closely  up  to  the  side  of  its 
neighbor,  and  it  is  usual  to  tack  the  boards  at  first  with  a  few  nails 
only,  and  after  they  are  all  in  place  to  line  them  with  a  chalked 
string,  or  straight-edge  and  pencil,  over  the  centre  of  the  beams 
below,  driving  the  nails  to  complete  the  work  on  the  lines  so 
marked. 

Before  laying  the  upper  boarding,  it  is  necessary  in  good 
houses  to  spread  one,  two,  or  three  layers  of  felt  over  the  under- 
boarding,  in  order  to  prevent  air  from  passing  through  the  joints, 

and  also,  by  the  interposition  of  a  non-resonant  ma- 
Felt  Deafening  ..  ,  1.1*1.  •     •  r  j       /- 

tenal,  to  check  the  transmission  of  sound.     Cane 

fibre  makes  a  clean,  dry  material,  which  will  not  harbor  moths, 
but  a  coarse  felt  of  woolen  rags  is  commonly  used.  Certain  varie- 
ties are  so  prepared  as  to  be  incombustible,  and,  especially  if  used  in 
several  thicknesses,  may  prove  valuable  in  preventing  the  spread 
of  fire  from  one  story  of  a  house  to  another.  The  felt  paper  made 
for  the  purpose  from  asbestos  is  the  best  of  these,  but  is  very  ex- 
pensive; and,  to  be  of  much  use  as  deafening,  should  be  in  two 


Fig.  170 

layers.     For  deafening  alone,  a  corrugated  or  embossed  paper, 
which  can  be  had  also  in  asbestos,  is  useful. 

In  the  Middle  States,  particularly  where  ordinary  floors  are 

laid  with  a  single  thickness  of  boards,  it  is  customary 

Floor in  *°  matcn  the  boards  (Fig.  170),  as  otherwise  currents 

of  air  would  come  up  freely  through  the  joints  from 

the  spaces  between  the  beams ;  and  the  influence  of  this  habit,  more 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  jgQ 

than  any  real  necessity,  has  made  it  customary  to  match  also  the 

the  upper  boarding  of  double  floors,  even  in  inferior  rooms.     The 

matching  of  spruce  floors  is,  however,  not  to  be  recommended, 

as  the  thin  edge  of  the  grooved 

side  of  the  boards  (Fig.  171) 

is  apt  to  curl  up  or  split  off. 

Pine  is  better  in  this  respect,  Fl&-  I7I 

but  stays  in  place  well  enough  for  an  upper  flooring  without 

matching. 

Where  hard  woods  are  used  for  flooring,  matching  is,  on  the 
contrary,  essential,  since  no  nails  must  appear  on  the  surface  of 
such  floors,  and  the  only  way  of  securing  them  to  the  beams  is  to 
drive  the  nails  diagonally  through  the  edges  of  the 
boards.     This  process  can,  however,  be  applied  only 
to  one  edge  of  each  board,  since  the  other  is  pressed  firmly  against 
the  side  of  the  one  which  preceded  it;  and  in  order  to  hold  the 
inner  edge  down,  it  is  necessary  to  connect  it  with  the  outer  edge 
of  the  preceding  board,  by  means  either  of  tongue  and  groove,  or 

of  some  equivalent  device.     These  floors  are  therefore^, 

1   -j  -  L.-  i      -^  ^  -     <.-       Blind  Nailing 

laid  in  narrow  strips,  each  with  the  tongue  projecting 

forward  into  the  room,  and  the  nails  are  driven  diagonally  into  the 
upper  angle  formed  by  the  tongue  and  the  edge  of  the  board 
(Fig.  172),  securing  this  edge  firmly;  and  the  groove  of  the  next 
strip  is  forced  over  the  tongue  so  secured,  so  as  to  retain  in  place 
its  inner  edge,  while  its  outer  edge,  furnished  with  a  tongue,  is  in 
its  turn  nailed. 

Parquetry  work,  such  as  we  are  to  have  in  one  room,  is  gener- 
ally made  with  much  more  care  than  ordinary  flooring,  and  re- 
quires special  machinery,  so  that  it  is  best  to  order  it  from  a  regu- 
lar manufacturer.  In  some  sorts  the  pieces  of  hard  wood  are  but 
half  an  inch  thick,  and  are  dovetailed  and  glued  upon  a  backing 

of    pine.     The    patterns    are    put    to- 
_   gether  in  a  factory,  and  sent  out  in 
/  sections  some  two  feet  square,  which 

Fig.  172  are   naiied    down    like    single   boards. 

Simpler  hard-wood  floors  may  be  made  and  put  down  by  the  car- 
penter. The  oak  floor  of  our  hall,  in  accordance  with  the  wish 
of  the  owner,  is  put  down  in  the  French  manner  with  short  pieces 


Fig.  173 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

laid  at  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  beams  and  at  right  angles  with 
each  other.  (Figs.  173,  174.) 

Figure  173  shows  the  most  common  method,  the  edges  of  the 
pieces  being  matched,  but  the  heading  joints  plain.     In  Figure 

174  the  heading  joints  are  tongued  and 
grooved  by  hand  as  the  pieces  are  laid,  so 
as  to  fit  into  the  matching  upon  the  edges. 
We  choose  the  former  mode,  as  the  least 
expensive,  and  the  easiest  to  execute. 
All  the  other  floors  are  simply  laid  with 
narrow  parallel  strips,  2^  inches  wide  in 
the  best  room,  4  in  the  others. 

It  is  of  great  importance  that  the  un- 
der boarding,  where  a  hardwood  upper 
floor  is  to  be  laid  over  it,  should  be  also 
of  narrow  strips,  not  exceeding  four  inches  at  most;  if  wider 
boards  are  used,  each  one  of  them  will  in  shrinking  gather  up,  so 
to  speak,  a  cluster  of  the  narrow  hard-wood  pieces  above  it,  and 
draw  them  tightly  together,  and  although  the  shrinkage  of  each 
hard-wood  strip,  if  well  seasoned,  is  very  slight,  the  movement 
of  the  wider  board  compresses  all  the  joints  over  it,  so  as  to  trans- 
fer the  total  shrinkage  to  the  joints  immediately  over  its  own 
edge.  The  adjoining  wide  board  of  the  under  flooring  acts  in 
the  same  way,  but  in  the  opposite  direction,  so  that  in  a  few 
months  every  board  below  will  be  exhibited  by  an  inordinately 
wide  separation  between  the  hard-wood 
strips  above,  the  other  joints  remaining 
perfectly  close. 

The  stock  for  upper  flooring  will  need 
close  examination.  Even  with  spruce  it 
is  necessary  to  see  that  waney  pieces  are 
not  smuggled  in,  and  to  look 
out  for  knots  and  sap,  while 
hard  wood  is  liable  to  other 
defects.  Oak  for  flooring,  unless  under 

severe  wear,  and,  indeed,  for  all  kinds  of  finish,  should  always 
be  quartered,  or  "rift,"  as  some  say — that  is,  sawed  with  two 
cuts  at  right  angles  with  each  other,  and  through  the  centre  of 


Flooring 
Stock 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

the  log,  all  subsequent  cuts  being  as  nearly  as  possible  on  radial 
lines. 

As  every  one  knows,  oak  is  distinguished  from  all  other  woods 
by  the  "silver  grain,"  or  medullary  rays,  consisting  of  small 
bundles  of  fibres,  which  shoot  out  laterally  from  the  centre  of  the 
trunk,  passing  through  the  annual  rings  toward  the  bark.  By 
quartering  the  log,  these  fibres  are  divided  nearly  or  quite  in  the 
direction  of  their  course,  and  show  on  the  surface  of 
the  boards  as  flecks  or  irregular  silvery  streaks,  upon 
a  ground  of  fine  parallel  lines,  formed  by  the  section 
of  the  annual  rings.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  log  is  sawed  into 
parallel  slices  in  the  ordinary  manner,  the  middle  slice  will  exhibit 
the  silver-grain,  as  will  also  one  or  two  on  each  side  of  it.  Further 
from  the  centre  the  medullary  rays  will  be  divided  almost  trans- 
versely, appearing  on  the  cut  surface  as  nearly  imperceptible  lines 
or  dashes,  while  the  section  of  the  annual  rings  will  grow  broader 
and  broader,  showing  itself,  since  the  sap-tubes  of  oak  are  quite 
large,  as  a  coarse,  rough  figure,  completely  indifferent  in  appear- 
ance from  the  delicate  and  silky  silver-grain,  and  liable  to  a  dingy 
discoloration  from  the  entrance  of  dust  and  dirt  into  the  exposed 
pores.  With  some  varieties,  oak  sawed  in  the  ordinary  way  often 
appears  "brashy,"  or  of  a  very  coarse  texture,' with  short  fibres 
which  break  away  easily. 

The  manner  in  which  the  log  is  sawn  affects  also  its  disposition 
to  warp  and  curl,  which  in  badly  cut  oak  is  very  strong.  The 
inner  portions  of  the  tree  are  compressed  and  hardened  by  age,  so 
that  there  is  a  gradual  diminution  of  density  toward  the  circum- 
ference, which  is  occupied  by  the  soft  and  spongy  sap-wood.  The 
less  compact  substance  naturally  shrinks  more  in  drying  than  that 
which  is  nearer  the  interior  of  the  log,  but  with  boards  whose 
surfaces  follow  the  radial  lines  the  movements  caused  by  dryness 
or  damp  are  all  in  the  plane  of  these  surfaces,  and  although  the 
board  varies  in  width,  it  has  no  tendency  to  warp.  Those  boards, 
on  the  contrary,  which  are  cut  in  lines  parallel  with  the  diameter 
of  the  log  have  one  surface  which  looks  toward  the  back  of  the  tree, 
and  the  other  toward  the  heart,  and  the  fibres  on  one  side  are  there- 
fore slightly  softer  than  on  the  other,  and  will  shrink  more,  curl- 
ing the  piece  outward  with  a  force  proportioned  to  its  thickness. 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

By  keeping  constantly  in  mind  these  properties  of  oak,  which 
belong  in  some  degree  to  all  kinds  of  timber,  many  annoying  de- 
fects in  hard-wood  finish  may  be  avoided.  Following  the  same 
principle,  the  Georgia-pine  floors  for  the  inferior  rooms  should  be 

specified  of  rift  stock;  that  is,  of  boards  cut  like 
Rift  Hard-Pine  J  ,  .  «•  ,  ,-  ™ 

quartered  oak,  on  radial  lines.  These  may  be  rec- 
ognized by  the  figure,  consisting  of  fine  parallel  lines,  in  place  of 
the  broad  mottlings  produced  by  a  cut  tangent  to  the  annual  rings. 
Hard-pine  boards  of  the  latter  kind  are  very  liable  to  splinter,  like 
spruce  cut  in  a  similar  way,  and  must  be  rejected.  Hard-pine 
boards  containing  large  streaks  of  dark  turpentine  are  also  unfit 
for  floors,  the  turpentine  soon  crumbling  away. 

There  are  one  or  two  points  about  the  hard-wood  finish  other 
than  the  floors,  which  may  be  noted.  Whitewood,  or  poplar,  is 
not  usually  ranked  among  the  hard  woods,  although  it  is  little 
inferior  in  this  respect  to  black  walnut  or  butternut.  It  has  the 
advantage  over  them  of  being  clear,  dry,  and  very  uniform  in 
texture.  The  annual  rings  are  almost  imperceptible,  and  the 
wood  is  little  subject  to  any  warping  or  checking.  For  large, 
solid  piazza,  posts  and  other  heavy  out-door  work,  it  is  superior  to 
any  other  material,  and  inside  finish  made  of  it  is  usually  durable 
and  satisfactory.  It  has  the  peculiar  property  of  swelling  consid- 
erably in  damp  weather,  even  when  perfectly  seasoned,  to  retreat 
again  to  its  original  dimensions  under  the  influence  of  furnace- 
heated  air;  so  that  doors  made  of  it  should  not  be  too  tightly 
fitted.  In  selecting  the  pieces  care  should  be  taken  to  exclude 
those  streaked  with  white  sap.  The  rest  of  the  wood  darkens 
very  much  after  finishing,  while  the  sappy  streaks  remain  white, 
and  soon,  by  contrast,  appear  as  disfigurements.  Black  sap, 
which  also  occurs,  is  not  generally  looked  upon  as  objectionable, 
but  it  forms  too  strong  a  figure  to  be  admitted  in  delicately- 
moulded  work. 

Hard-wood  doors,  except  those  of  whitewood,  are   usually 
veneered  upon  a  core  of  well-seasoned  pine,  to  prevent 
warping,  and  it  is  necessary  to  examine  them  upon 
delivery,  to  see  that  the  veneers  are  of  the  proper 
thickness.     Those  which  cover  the  panels  may  be  y$  inch;  over 
the  framing  they  should  be  specified  l/^  inch,  although  the  final 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


193 


planing  which  such  doors  undergo  generally  reduces  this  thickness 
somewhat. 

There  are  innumerable  points  about  the  finishing  of  a  dwell- 
ing-house which,  though  trifling  in  themselves,  count  for  a  great 
deal  in  the  impression  which  the  completed  structure 
will  produce  upon  the  owner  and  his  friends,  and  the 
architect  or  superintendent  will  do  well  to  go  thor- 
oughly and  repeatedly  over  the  building  during  the  finishing,  and 
make  sure  that  every  visible  detail  is  satisfactory  before  the  con- 
tractor leaves  it. 

First  among  the  points  to  be  examined  is  the  hanging  of  the 
windows.     The  sashes  vary  considerably  in  weight, 
and  unless  each  one  is  accurately  balanced,  which 
takes  both  time  and  care,  the  sash  will  not  stay  in 
place.     The  sash-fasts  may  also  be  badly  set,  so  that  they  will  not 

lock,  and  nothing  short  of  an  actual  trial  of  each  sash 

r  -1-n  1  .1.11  Sash-Fasts 

of  every  window  will  serve  to  make  sure  that  all  are 

as  they  should  be.  Door  locks  and  knobs  are  also  very  carelessly 
applied,  and  there  are  few  houses  where  all  of  them  work  per- 
fectly. The  striking-plate,  particularly,  is  apt  to  be  set  too  high, 
or  too  low,  or  too  far  into  the  rebate,  so  that  either  the  latch  or 
the  bolt  will  not  enter  the  mortise  intended  for  it; 
while  the  "roses,"  or  plates,  screwed  upon  the  oppo-  Furniture 
site  sides  of  the  door,  in  which  the  stems  of  the  knobs 
move,  are  rarely  placed  exactly  opposite  each  other,  so  that  the 
spindle,  instead  of  being  perpendicular  to  the  door,  is  forced  into 
an  oblique  direction,  causing  the  knobs  to  bind 
and  stick  in  turning  (Fig.  175).  The  knobs, 
again,  are  generally  put  on  without  inserting 
the  proper  number  of  thin  washers  which  slip 
over  the  spindle  for  the  purpose  of  filling  out  the 
space  between  the  lock  and  the  knobs  on  each 
side,  and  the  latter  are  left  loose  in  conse- 
Fig-  i75  quence,  sliding  in  and  out  with  the  touch  of 
the  hand  in  an  annoying  way.  Many  architects  call  in 
their  specifications  for  "swivel  spindles,"  with  which  spincHes 
the  turning  of  the  knob  on  one  side  of  the  door  does 
not  affect  that  on  the  other  side ;  but  except  for  those  front  doors 
13 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

which  have  an  arrangement  for  locking  the  outside  knob  separ- 
ately, the  swivel  is  hardly  necessary. 

Chair-rails,  picture-mouldings,  wooden  cornices,  and  other 
finish  of  the  same  kind  will  often  be  applied  with  the  utmost  care- 

lessness.    Nothing  is  more  common  than  to  see  such 
Chair-Rails,  etc.  ,       .  -  .,.  .  .    .  ,    . 

horizontal  mouldings  varying  very  much  from  their 

correct  position,  the  workman  having  put  them  on  by  what  he 
would  have  called  "his  eye/'  instead  of  measuring  at  short  inter- 
vals the  proper  distance  from  the  floor  or  ceiling. 

The  young  architect  or  superintendent  should  train  himself  to 

quick  observation  of  all  these  points.     Any  defects 

Defects  °P    are  sure  *°  ^e  discovered  sooner  or  later  by  the  owner, 

to  the  discredit  of  the  one  whose  business  it  was  to 

look  out  for  and  correct  them  at  the  proper  season. 

The  character  of  the  hardware  about  a  building  is  also  of  much 
importance.  The  variety  of  patterns  and  qualities  of  locks,  knobs, 

pulls,  bolts,  hooks,  hinges,  sash-fasts,  and  so  on,  is  so 
Hardware 

great  that  nothing  but  a  thorough  familiarity  with 

the  different  kinds,  and  a  minutely  detailed  specification,  will 
protect  the  architect  or  superintendent  from  being  occasionally 
compelled  to  accept  fittings  which  he  does  not  like,  but  which  the 
indefinite  character  of  the  specification  precludes  him  from  reject- 
ing as  not  in  accordance  with  the  contract. 

The  locks  form  a  very  important  part  of  a  building.     Those 
used  in  good  houses  are  generally  mortise  locks,  inserted  into  a 
mortise  cut  in  the  edge  of  the  door.     The  centre  of 
the  knob  should  be  exactly  three  feet  above  the  fin- 
ished floor,  and  the  mortise  for  the  lock,  in  inside  doors,  will 
extend  one  inch  above  and  three  inches  below  this  point.     For 
outside  doors,  the  mortise  is  generally  six  inches 


tionof  Knobs  ^igh  —  two  inches  above  and  four  inches  below  the 
centre  of  the  knob.  In  designing  the  doors,  the 

paneling  should  be  so  laid  out  that  the  lock-mortise  will  come 

beside  a  panel,  and  not  opposite  a  rail  of  the  framing;  as,  in  the 
latter  case,  the  mortise  will  cut  off  the  tenon  of  the 
rail>  weakening  the  door  very  badly.  For  want  of 
attention  to  this  point,  young  architects  often  find 

that  doors,  in  whose  elegantly-proportioned  panels  they  take  the 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

greatest  pride,  have  to  be  fitted  with  handles  set  either  at  an  im- 
moderate height  from  the  floor,  or  ridiculously  low,  to  avoid 
making  them  altogether  unserviceable.  This  is  par- 
ticularly likely  to  be  the  case  in  copying  doors  of  Doors'*1 
colonial  type,  either  out  of  books  or  from  actual  exam- 
ples. These  show  invariably  at  the  level  of  the  knob  a  wide  rail 
instead  of  a  panel,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  mortise  locks 
were  not  in  use  then,  their  place  being  supplied  by  rim  locks,  in 
which  the  working  parts  were  enclosed  in  an  iron  or  brass  box, 
screwed  to  the  outside  of  the  door,  a  small  hole  only  being  bored 
through  the  door  for  the  spindle  of  the  knobs.  Of  course,  the 
tenon  not  being  in  this  case  interfered  with,  there  was  no  reason 
why  the  lock  should  not  be  screwed  on  next  the  rail,  and  as  many 
of  the  ancient  rim  locks,  or  the  latches  which  were  substituted  for 
them  in  inferior  rooms,  were  longer  than  the  width  of  the  "style" 
at  the  edge  of  the  door,  it  was  an  advantage  to  place  it  where  it 
could  extend  back  upon  the  framing.  Occasionally,  a  modern 
version  of  the  Colonial  doors  is  seen  with  a  mortise  lock  set  oppo- 
site a  very  wide  lock-rail ;  but  this  must  be  done  by  framing  the 
latter  with  two  tenons,  far  enough  apart  to  give  room  for  the 
mortise  between  them, — an  arrangement  not  to  be  recommended. 

For  closet  doors,  a  mortise  latch  is  sometimes  used,  with  either 
one  or  two  knobs,  but  no  lock  or  key.  The  case  for  this  is  only 
about  2%  inches  high,  but  such  furnishings  are  only 
suitable  for  inferior  houses,  a  closet  which  cannot  be 
locked  being  as  inconvenient  as  a  door  with  a  knob 
on  only  one  side  is  mean  in  appearance.  The  hand-made  locks 
are  far  superior  to  those  made  by  machinery,  and  also  much  more 
costly ;  but  some  of  the  machine-made  kinds  serve  well  enough  for 
ordinary  purposes.  Any  good  contractor  or  hardware  dealer  can 
furnish  the  names  of  the  most  reliable  manufacturers,  and  the 
safest  course  for  the  young  architect  is  to  require  a  first-class  make 
by  name  in  his  specifications.  The  manufacturers'  catalogues  will 
furnish  him  with  all  necessary  information  as  to  styles,  and  he 
should  call  for  exactly  what  he  wants  so  clearly  that  there  may  be 
no  mistake  as  to  his  intention,  finally  assuring  himself  by  inspec- 
tion that  the  contract  has  been  carried  out. 

Reversible  locks  should  be  chosen,  unless  the  architect  is  will- 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

ing  to  see  a  door  here  and  there  hung  on  the  wrong  side  to  accom- 
modate some  carpenter  who  has  selected  his  locks  at  random  and 
finds  himself  short  of  the  proper  kind ;  and  the  char- 
acter  °^  t^ie  kevs  snould  be  specified,  or  he  may  find  a 
set  of  locks  of  tolerably  good  appearance  accompanied 
by  cast-iron  keys,  tinned  or  galvanized.  For  the  inside  doors  of 
ordinary  houses  a  mortise  lock  from  any  of  the  great 
manufacturers,  with  brass  face  and  striking-plate, 
brass  bolts  and  German  silver  or  plated  keys,  does  well  enough. 
For  the  best  rooms  a  "fancy"  face,  formed  by  grinding  the  brass 
in  curling  forms,  may  be  used ;  or  some  expense  may  be  saved  by 
allowing  the  bolts  to  be  of  iron  instead  of  brass.  A  cheaper  lock 
has  an  iron  face,  lacquered  to  imitate  brass,  but  there- is  no  real 
economy  in  using  it. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  locks  for  interior  doors  are 
usually  of  the  simplest  construction,  the  wards  of  the  key  merely 
fitting  stationary  projections  inside  the  box,  which  give  no  security 
against  opening  by  a  skeleton  key  or  a  piece  of  stout  wire ;  but  it  is 
not  required  in  such  cases  to  provide  against  the  operations  of 
professional  burglars.  These  locks  are  commonly  used  in  sets  of 
twelve,  the  twelve  keys  differing  from  each  other,  but  the  com- 
plete sets  being  exactly  alike,  so  that  in  a  house  with  twenty-four 
doors  there  will  be  two  keys  of  each  pattern,  which  may,  however, 
be  distinguished  by  a  difference  in  the  finish,  one  set  being  bronzed 
and  the  other  plated,  for  instance.  For  outside  doors,  which  must 
occasionally  be  left  without  the  security  of  bolts,  "lever"  or  "tumb- 
ler" locks  are  needed,  in  which  the  interior  construction  is  far 
more  complex,  and  the  security,  as  well  as  the  cost, 
correspondingly  greater.  Many  varieties  of  these 
locks  are  made,  with  and  without  night-latches,  and  inspection 
will  furnish  the  best  guide  as  to  the  arrangement  desired.  Some 
front-door  locks  are  so  arranged  that  the  outside  knob  is  perma- 
nently fixed,  but  the  better  ones  are  furnished  with  a  movement  by 
which  it  can  be  held  firm,  or  released  if  it  is  desired  to  allow  the 
door  to  be  opened  directly  from  the  outside,  without  a  key.  Locks 
of  either  kind,  of  the  common  construction,  are  somewhat  liable 
to  have  the  latch  become  slow  in  working,  so  that  a  sharp  bang  is 
necessary  to  close  the  door.  Age  increases  this  fault,  which  is 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


197 


only  partially  cured  by  oiling,  and  a  more  satisfactory  service  can 

be  had  from  the  patent  locks,  in  which  the  latch  is  in  two  or  three 

parts,  one,  which  projects  in  front,  turning  on  a  pivot 

as  it  is  drawn  against  the  striking  plate,  and  by  the         Latches 

same  motion  drawing  back  the  others,  so  that  when 

the  whole  reaches  its  place,  it  slips  out  into  its  mortise  without  any 

friction  of  importance.     Locks  of  this  sort  are  made  by  all  the 

principal  manufacturers. 

Care  should  be  taken,  if  locks  and  knobs  are  procured  from 
different  makers,  as  will  generally  be  the  case,  to  have  the  hole  for 
the  spindle  correspond  with  the  actual  size.  Most  jndies 

locks  can  be  had  fitted  to  either  y%  or  ^4  mcn  spindles ; 
and  although  %-inch  is  the  size  commonly  used,  there  are  many 
advantages  in  having  the  knobs  mounted  on  y%  spindles,  with  or 
without  swivels.  What  shall  be  the  material  of  the  knobs  must 
depend  upon  circumstances.  Brass,  bronze,  cast-iron,  hard  rub- 
ber, glass,  porcelain,  celluloid,  wood,  and  various 

..  P  -  .,-  1-1111  Knobs 

compositions    of   saw-dust   and   glue,    dried   blood, 

glazed  earthenware  and  other  substances  are  used.  Among  these, 
dark  bronze  metal  of  good  quality  is  the  most  satisfactory.  The 
light  bronze,  even  when  good,  is  apt  to  tarnish  in  rooms  not  much 
used,  and  the  soft,  inferior  bronze  wears  to  a  dirty  yellow  color 
which  is  very  unpleasant.  Moreover,  there  is  in  bronze  hardware 
a  much  greater  variety  of  patterns  than  in  any  other  kind,  and 
knobs,  hinges,  bolts,  chain-bolts,  sliding-door  pulls,  sash-fasts  and 
other  furnishings  can  be  so  selected  as  to  match  in  color  and  gen- 
eral appearance  throughout  the  building.  There  is,  however, 
much  difference  in  the  execution  and  finish  of  the  castings,  and  it 
is  unsafe  to  trust  to  the  drawings  in  the  catalogues  of  unknown 
makers  without  seeing  samples  of  the  work. 

Polished  brass  furniture,  where  it  is  fashionable,  is  very  costly, 
and  requires  continual  attention  to  keep  it  bright.  Silver-plated 
brass  knobs  soon  lose  their  coating,  and  are  becoming  obsolete. 
Cast-iron  is  used  for  door-knobs  only  in  a  miserable  imitation  of 
bronze  or  brass.  Hard  rubber  and  celluloid  make  durable  and 
pretty  furniture  for  in-doors,  but  do  not  bear  weathering  well. 
Glass  is  a  good  material,  and  can  be  had  in  great  variety :  the  old- 
fashioned  cut  knobs  are  the  handsomest,  but  those  pressed  in 


198  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

various  forms  are  serviceable.  The  blown-glass  knobs,  silvered 
inside,  are  fragile  unless  of  very  good  make.  Porcelain  and  the 
vitrified  materials  known  as  "mineral"and  "lava,"  with  "hemacite" 
and  some  similar  substances,  are  used  for  inferior  rooms.  Knobs 
of  wood  or  its  imitations  are  somewhat  liable  to  become  sticky 
from  the  softening  of  the  varnish  upon  them. 

Bolts  are  necessary  for  all  doors  which  need  to  be  rendered 
tolerably  secure  against  intrusion,  and  afford  more  protection  than 
any  lock.  The  neatest  and  most  convenient  are  the 
patent  mortise  bolts,  which  are  set  into  a  small  auger- 
hole  bored  in  the  edge  of  the  door,  and  show  only  a  small  key 
Chain  Bolt  outs^e-  Outside  doors  are  frequently  guarded  by  a 
chain-bolt,  consisting  of  a  strong  ornamental  chain, 
attached  to  the  frame,  or  one  leaf  of  a  double  door,  which  can  be 
hooked  into  a  slotted  plate  on  the  movable  part  of  the  door,  and 
will  allow  the  door  to  be  unlocked  and  opened  three  or  four  inches, 
for  conversation  with  a  person  outside,  but  prevents  it  from  open- 
ing further  until  unhooked.  This  effectually  resists  the  attempts 
of  tramps  to  force  their  way  past  a  servant  into  the  house  as  soon 
as  the  door  is  unlocked,  but  as  it  can  easily  be  dislodged  from  the 
outside  by  a  wire,  it  should  be  used  in  addition  to,  and  not  as  a 
substitute  for,  the  ordinary  bolt. 

Sash-fasts  of  the  ordinary  kind  are  the  least  effectual  of  all 
domestic  defenses  against  the  operations  of  burglars.     By  intro- 
ducing the  blade  of  a  knife  between  the  upper  and 
Sash-Fasts      ,  r 

lower  sashes  from  the  outside  the  lever  can  be  easily 

pushed  back  and  the  window  opened,  and  this  is  in  fact  the  com- 
mon mode  of  entrance  for  thieves.  Of  late  years  the  necessity  for 
preventing  the  movement  of  the  lever  from  the  outside  has  become 
so  obvious  that  several  devices,  more  or  less  perfect,  are  now  in  use 
for  the  purpose.  The  earliest  form,  lately  revived,  has  a  spring 
catch  with  a  thumb-piece  attached  to  the  inner  plate,  which,  as  the 
lever  is  swung  around,  is  first  pushed  back  and  then  springs  out, 
holding  it  in  place  until  it  is  again  pushed  back  by  the  thumb.  This 
is  convenient,  and  reasonably  secure,  but  after  some  years'  wear  the 
catch  becomes  rounded  by  friction,  and  the  lever  may  sometimes 
be  forced  back  over  it  from  the  outside  by  a  strong  pressure. 
Other  sash-fasts  lock* by  the  dropping  of  the  movable  end  of  the 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  IO/9 

lever  into  a  notch,  or  by  an  eccentric  motion,  while,  in  others,  the 
short  end  of  the  lever  hooks  under  a  fixed  projection  on  the  upper 
sash.  There  are,  also,  locks,  operating  by  means  of  toothed  bars 
set  in  the  frame,  which  hold  the  sash  in  any  position.  All  the 
varieties  of  sash-fast  are  made  in  japanned  or  bronzed  iron,  brass, 
bronze  metal  and  nickel  or  silver  plate,  to  correspond  with  other 
hardware. 

Hinges  form  the  only  other  article  of  importance  in  the  hard- 
ware dealer's  order.     Solid  bronze  metal,  polished 
brass,  silver  plate,  "Boston  finish," — a  brown  lacquer 
over  iron,  resembling  bronze, — black  japanned  iron,  either  plain, 

or  with  silver  or  bronze  tips,  and  plain  iron,  are  at  the 

1      r    1  1  •  Tr      i-j  i_  i_  Boston  Finish 

command  of  the  architect.     If  solid  bronze,  brass,  or 

silver  plate  are  used,  only  the  best  quality,  with  steel  bushings  and 
steel  washers  should  be  used,  as  the  softer  metal  wears  out  rapidly 
from  the  movement  of  the  door.  Iron,  either  japanned  or  Boston 
finish,  for  hard-wood  doors,  with  tips  either  of  the  same  or  of  solid 
bronze  or  plated,  and  plain  for  doors  intended  to  be  painted,  forms 
on  the  whole  the  best  material  for  ordinary  dwelling-houses.  Most 
houses  are  now  fitted  with  "loose-joint"  butts,  which 
allow  the  door,  after  opening,  to  be  lifted  off  and  BuJtsse"Joint 
replaced  without  unscrewing  the  hinge.  With  heavy 
doors,  however,  there  is  danger  of  bending  the  projecting  pin  of 
the  hinge  during  this  operation,  and  it  is  better  to  re- 
quire "loose  pin"  butts,  in  which  the  pin  itself  can  be 
drawn  out  from  the  top  and  the  door  removed  and 
replaced,  with  as  much  ease  as  in  the  other  case,  and  greater  safety. 
Young  architects  occasionally  forget  to  proportion  the  size  of  the 
butts  to  the  circumstances  of  their  door-frames  and  architraves, 
and  find,  too  late,  that  the  doors  of  their  best  rooms 
cannot  be  swung  back  to  the  wall.  Where  the  open- 
ings  are  finished  with  unusually  thick  mouldings, 
Gothic  beads,  or  pilasters,  the  proper  way  is  to  make  a  horizontal 
section  of  the  door,  with  its  frame  and  finish,  including  bases  or 
plinth  blocks,  and  capitals,  if  there  are  any ;  then  add  the  extreme 
projection  of  the  trim  from  the  plane  of  the  door,  to  twice  the 
thickness  of  the  door,  and  deduct  half  an  inch  from  the  sum ;  the 
remainder  will  be  the  minimum  width  of  butt  which  will  hang  the 


200  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

door  securely  and  throw  it  clear  of  the  mouldings.  If  the  result 
does  not  correspond  with  a  regular  size  of  hinge,  the  nearest  size 
larger  should  be  specified.  Butts  are  made  of  several  widths  to 
the  same  height,  as  4"  X  4",  4"  X  4^">  4"  X  5",  4"  X  6",  and 
so  on ;  the  dimensions  being  those  of  the  hinge  when  opened  flat. 

For  the  remaining  small  items,  as  coat-hooks,  drawer-pulls, 
and  the  like,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  describe  clearly  in  the  speci- 
fication  what  is  wanted.  In  certain  cases  drawer- 
pulls  must  be  of  fancy  styles,  but  for  closets  japanned 
iron  is  much  the  best  material,  and  the  simpler  and  smoother  the 
pattern  the  better.  Architects  and  builders  often  go  to  a  small 
unnecessary  expense  in  putting  fancy  cast-bronze  or  Boston-fin- 
ished pulls  on  their  cases  of  drawers,  which  serve  only  to  bruise 
and  excoriate  the  fingers  of  those  who  handle  them;  and  fit  up 
rows  of  roughly-finished  bronze  metal  hooks,  whose  edges  quickly 
cut  the  material  of  clothes  suspended  from  them,  while  the  artistic 
knobs  and  curves  with  which  they  are  adorned  always  prevent 
them  from  being  as  serviceable  as  the  plain,  strong  double  hook  of 
japanned  cast-iron. 

It  is  important  that  the  young  architect  should  inform  himself 
as  to  the  character  and  comparative  cost  of  the  various  kinds  of 

metallic   house-furnishings,    and    describe   distinctly 
Fixing  Prices     t       ,  t          5  '  .  t  . 

what  he  requires  in  the  specification,  without  resorting 

to  the  slovenly  practice  of  specifying  that  the  different  articles  shall 
cost  a  certain  sum  per  dozen,  or  per  set,  or  per  gross.  The  actual 
expense  of  such  goods  to  the  contractor  is  a  very  different  thing 
from  the  cost  as  set  down  in  the  price-lists,  and  to  specify  articles 
of  a  given  price,  instead  of  a  given  kind,  is  usually  to  oblige  the 
owner  to  pay  a  large  profit  on  goods  which  he  might  have  obtained 
for  the  net  value  if  they  had  been  distinctly  described. 

If  the  architect  has  been  wise  enough  to  demand  specific  arti- 
cles of  hardware  from  manufacturers  of  good  reputation,  the  duty 
of  the  superintendent  will  require  little  more  of  him 

Hardware1  °f  than  to  See  that  the  order  is  correctl7  filled>  and  that 
the  fittings  are  properly  put  on.     If,  however,  the 

specification  is  one  of  the  kind  that  vaguely  stipulates  that  such 
materials  shall  be  "good,"  or  "neat/'  or  "worth  two  dollars  per 
dozen,"  he  must  prepare  himself  for  a  rigid  inspection  of  the  goods 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  2OI 

furnished  in  accordance  with  it.  The  bronze  hardware  of  all  kinds 
may  prove  to  be  of  soft  yellow  metal,  with  a  thin  bronze  finish  over 
it,  or  even  of  iron  skilfully  lacquered  or  bronzed ;  the  brass  faces  of 
locks  and  bolts  may  be  fictitious,  consisting  of  iron,  varnished 
with  yellow  lacquer,  or  brass-plated ;  the  silvered-glass  knobs  may 
be  of  a  substance  so  thin,  or  so  carelessly  blown,  as  to  crush  in  an 
incautious  hand,  inflicting  frightful  wounds ;  or  any  kind  may  be 
so  feebly  secured  to  the  metal  shank  as  to  come  off  altogether  upon 
occasion ;  or  the  hinges  may  be  destitute  of  washers,  and  will  soon 
creak  painfully.  The  cases  of  cheap  mortise  locks  are  often  made, 
to  economize  material,  so  short  as  to  bring  the  knob  within  an  inch 
of  the  edge  of  the  door,  so  that  the  hand  is  scraped  against  the 
rebate  of  the  frame  whenever  the  door  is  shut;  or  sometimes  the 
width  as  well  as  the  length  of  the  case  is  reduced,  and  the  knuckles 
come  into  painful  contact  with  the  key  on  turning  the  knob ;  while 
occasionally  a  lock  is  seen  which  allows  the  door  to  be  opened  by 
turning  the  knob  one  way  only,  instead  of  both  ways.  The  screws 
furnished  for  putting  on  cheap  hardware  are  also  generally  too 
small,  so  that  the  fixtures  are  insecurely  fastened ;  and  the  worst 
workmen  will  increase  this  fault  by  their  fashion  of  applying  them, 
which  consists  in  driving  the  screw  nearly  home  with  a  heavy  blow 
of  the  hammer,  finishing  with  a  turn  or  two  of  the  screw-driver. 
Such  men  also  generally  show  an  exasperating  indifference  to  the 
appearance  of  their  own  or  others'  work,  putting  on  bronze  metal 
or  japanned  fittings  with  plain  iron  screws,  instead  of  blued  iron 
or  bronze,  and  using  them  of  different  sizes,  or  several  sizes  too 
large,  if  necessary  to  save  themselves  the  trouble  of  going  after 
suitable  ones;  screwing  hinges,  bolts,  or  plates  at  random  on 
veneered  doors,  and  if  they  fail  to  fit,  removing  them  and  screwing 
them  on  again  somewhere  else,  leaving  two  or  three  sets  of  screw- 
holes  yawning  in  the  polished  surface  of  the  wood,  or  in  a  hundred 
other  stupid  and  blundering  ways  defacing  the  building  which  they 
help,  after  their  fashion,  to  complete.  Continual  vigilance  is 
needed  to  discover  and  correct  such  faults,  and  the  superintendent 
of  a  house  which  on  delivery  to  its  owner  proves  to  have  all  its 
hardware  perfect,  well  put  on,  and  in  good  working  order,  has  at 
least  some  qualities  which  particularly  fit  him  for  his  profession. 
While  the  joiners'  work  is  going  on  inside  the  house,  the  oper- 


202  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

ations  of  drainage,  grading  and  sodding  outside  should  be  com- 
pleted, so  that  the  dust  incident  to  them  may  be  laid  before  the 
final  painting. 

Unless,  as  will  rarely  be  the  case  in  the  country,  drainage  by 

regular  sewers  is  provided,  the  first  of  the  outside 
Grading6  ^  °Perations  should  be  the  selection  of  a  site  for,  and 

the  construction  of,  a  cesspool  of  some  kind.    Usually 
the  position  of  this  is  marked  approximately  on  the  plans,  or  indi- 

cated  in  the  specification,  which  is  necessary  in  order 

to  lay  out  the  plumbing  intelligently;  but  circum- 
stances will  often  modify  greatly  the  character  of  the  construction 
as  executed.  For  most  houses,  the  ancient  leaching  cesspool  or 
"dry  well"  is  still  adopted,  as  the  cheapest  means  of  disposing  of 
house-wastes,  but  the  architect  should  examine  all  the  conditions 
with  great  care  before  lending  his  authority  to  this  expedient.  If 
the  house  is  supplied  with  water  from  a  town  or  city  service,  or 
from  springs  higher  than  the  building  and  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance, and  if  the  lot  on  which  it  stands  is  so  large  that  the  inevit- 
able poisoning  of  the  ground  by  the  soakage  of  putrefying  filth 
will  not  affect  its  inmates  or  their  neighbors,  the  leaching  cesspool 
may  be  regarded,  in  view  of  the  greater  cost  and 
trouble  of  other  devices, -as  an  evil  to  be  tolerated  so 
long  as  the  favorable  circumstances  continue.  If, 
however,  water  is  to  be  drawn  for  use,  either  in  the  house  or  stable 
of  the  proprietor  or  his  neighbors,  from  any  well  within  three 
hundred  feet  of  the  proposed  cesspool,  and  on  the  same  or  a  lower 
level,  the  architect  should  refuse  his  sanction  to  any  plan  whatever 
for  discharging  sewage  into  the  subsoil. 

In  rocky  districts,  and  in  places  where  deep  wells  are  necessary, 
a  much  greater  distance  should  intervene  between  them  and  any 
porous  cesspools. 

It  is  positively  proved  that  the  typhoid  poison  contained  in 
refuse  thrown  upon  the  ground  on  a  rocky  hillside,  and  washed  by 
the  rain  into  some  hidden  seam  or  depression  in  the  ledge  beneath 
the  surface,  has  been  carried  down  with  its  qualities  unchanged,  to 
infect  with  very  fatal  effect  a  spring,  apparently  of  the  purest 
water,  a  mile  beyond ;  and  it  may  generally  be  assumed  that  with 
such  a  subsoil  the  crevices  through  which  the  liquid  escapes  from  a 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  203 

leaching  cesspool  are,  if  not  the  same,  at  least  in  communication 
more  or  less  direct  with  the  seams  which,  ramifying  in  all  direc- 
tions, serve  to  convey  water  to  the  wells  of  the  neighborhood.  If, 
again,  a  well  in  a  porous,  gravelly  soil  is  very  deep,  the  extent  of 
the  area  from  which  it  draws  its  supply  is  enormously  increased. 
The  pumping  out  of  the  excavation  in  gravelly  and  clayey  soil  for 
a  dry-dock  near  London  drained  wells  at  a  distance  of  much  more 
than  a  mile.  After  the  pumping  was  discontinued,  the  wells  grad- 
ually filled  to  their  normal  level,  showing  that  the  water  was  drawn 
from  them  to  the  excavation  during  the  pumping,  and  that  if  they 
had  contained  foul  liquids  instead  of  clear  water,  and  the  excava- 
tion had  been  a  well  instead  of  a  dry-dock  basin,  the  sewage  would, 
even  from  that  distance,  have  ultimately  reached  it. 

Supposing  that  all  danger  of  contamination  to  the  drinking 
water  of  the  house  is  averted,  by  the  introduction  of  water  either 
from  a  public  service,  or  from  a  spring  or  well  whose 
bottom  is  considerably  higher  than  the  proposed  cess-  cesspoofs 
pool,  this  may  be  excavated  of  a  circular  form,  in 
diameter  from  eight  to  twelve  feet,  and  of  the  depth  requisite  to 
reach  an  absorbent  stratum,  the  sides  lined  with  a  dry  wall  of 
stone  or  brick,  and  the  top  drawn  over  in  the  form  of  a  rude  dome, 
leaving  a  man-hole  about  twenty  inches  in  diameter  at  the  top, 
which  should  be  covered  with  stone  or  iron.  Wooden  covers  soon 
rot,  forming  a  dangerous  trap.  The  usual  way  is  to  fix  the  height 
of  the  masonry  so  that  the  top  of  the  cover  shall  come  about  four 
inches  beneath  the  sod,  which  may  be  either  carried  over  it,  con- 
cealing it  entirely,  or  turned  down  neatly  around  the  edges  of  the 
stone  or  iron  cover. 

In  sandy  or  gravelly  soils  such  a  cesspool  will  dispose  of  the 
waste  liquids  of  a  house  for  a  long  time,  but  in  the  course  of  years 
the  earth  around  it  becomes  coated  with  the  fatty  deposit  from  the 
sewage,  and  a  new  cesspool  must  be  dug.  Where  the  sand  or 
gravel  is  very  fine,  or  mixed  with  clay,  the  stoppage  of  its  pores 
takes  place  quickly,  and  as  years  pass  by  a  continually  increasing 
chain  of  cesspools,  each  connected  with  the  previous  one  by  an 
overflow-pipe,  serves  to  saturate  the  ground  around  the  house  with 
putrefaction,  and  the  air  with  malaria.  In  very  clayey  soils  no 
leaching  whatever  takes  place,  and  the  cesspool  fills  up  like  a  tight 


204  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

cistern,  a  few  days'  use,  with  one  of  ordinary  size,  causing  it  to 
overflow.  Such  ground  often,  however,  contains  strata  of  porous 
gravel  or  sand,  and  if  the  excavation  can  be  carried  to  one  of  these 
seams,  the  cesspool  may  answer  well  enough;  but  if  not,  and  no 
more  favorable  spot  can  be  found,  a  different  mode  of  disposal 
must  be  adopted. 

The  simplest,  though  not  the  least  troublesome,  way  of  sur- 
mounting the  difficulty  is  to  drill  a  hole  through  the  cover  of  the 

cesspool,  and  set  over  it  an  ordinary  pump,  by  which 
Cesspool  ^e  ncluid  mav  be  pumped  out  at  intervals  of  days  or 

weeks,  according  to  the  capacity  of  the  reservoir,  and 
spread  upon  the  grass,  or  utilized  in  the  garden.  A  small  tank  on 
wheels,  which  can  be  filled  at  the  pump  and  conveyed  quickly  to 
the  point  where  the  fertilizing  fluid  is  to  be  applied,  is  much  used 
for  this  purpose.  The  operation  is  not  offensive,  or  only  very 
slightly  so,  since  the  sewage  does  not  remain  in  the  cesspool  long 
enough  for  putrefaction  to  take  place,  and  the  results  are  excellent, 
but  the  necessary  attention  cannot  always  be  given  to  it,  and  a 
neglect  which  might  cause  the  backing  up  of  the  sewage  in  the 
drains,  to  overflow  into  the  cellar  of  the  house,  would  be  a  serious 
matter.  To  avoid  this,  it  is  customary  to  provide  an  overflow, 
through  which  the  liquid  can  upon  occasion  escape  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  where,  although  a  continued  flow  would  be 
offensive,  its  presence  is  less  objectionable  than  in  the  house. 

A  more  automatic  arrangement,  which  has  been  gaining  rap- 
idly in  favor  of  late  years,  consists  in  substituting  for  the  surface 
overflow,  to  be  used  only  in  case  of  temporary  need,  a  permanent 
outlet,  formed  by  a  series  of  open- jointed  pipes,  laid  a  few  inches 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  where  the  liquid  exuding  from 

between  them  will  be  absorbed,  partly  by  the  porous 

Subsoil  loam  which  always  forms  the  upper  stratum,  and 
Irrigation  J 

partly  by  the  roots  of  the  grass  or  other  vegetation 
growing  upon  the  surface.  If  properly  arranged,  this  system  is 
very  satisfactory,  not  only  disposing  of  the  house-waste  as  com- 
pletely, and  with  as  little  attention,  as  the  ordinary  leaching  cess- 
pool, but  accomplishing  this  in  soils  where  a  leaching  cesspool 
could  not  be  made,  and  what  is  of  even  more  importance,  perform- 
ing its  work  for  an  indefinite  period  without  causing  any  contam- 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


205 


ination  of  the  ground,  the  actively  oxidizing  action  of  the  bacterial 
colonies  living  in  the  top  of  the  soil  serving  to  destroy  with  cer- 
tainty the  last  traces  of  organic  impurity  in  the  liquid,  which  if 
discharged  into  the  ground  a  few  feet  below,  beyond  the  reach  of 
bacterial  oxidation,  would  retain  its  foulness  for  months,  if  not 
for  years. 

An  efficient  system  of  subsoil  irrigation  must  consist  of  two 
parts :  the  tight  cesspool  or  tank  where  the  waste  matters  from 
the  house  are  retained  until  they  dissolve  into  a  thin,  milky  liquid, 
and  the  net-work  of  pipes  which  receives  the  sewage  from  the 
reservoir,  and  dissipates  it  into  the  ground.  The  tight  cesspool 
should  be  constructed  as  shown  in  section  in  Figure  176,  of  hard 
brick,  laid  in  cement,  circular  in  plan,  about  5  feet  in  diameter,  and 


Fig.  176 

5  feet  deep  from  the  mouth  of  the  outlet.  The  walls  should  be  8 
inches  thick  in  most  soils.  The  bottom  may  be  4  inches  thick,  and 
the  top  should  be  covered  with  a  4-inch  dome,  with  a  man-hole 
1 8  or  20  inches  in  diameter,  and  a  flagstone  cover.  Whether  the 
cover  shall  be  tight,  or  be  provided  with  a  vent  hole  and  grating, 
depends  upon  the  arrangement  of  the  drain-pipes.  If  a  separate 
"foot  ventilation"  is  provided  for  the  main  drain  near  the  house, 
it  is  best  to  keep  the  cesspool  closed ;  but  unless  fresh  air  is  sup- 
plied at  the  foot  of  the  soil-pipe  by  a  special  inlet,  a  circulation 
should  be  insured  by  omitting  all  traps  in  the  drain,  and  providing 
a  grated  opening  in  the  cesspool  cover.  If,  as  should  always  be 
the  case,  the  soil-pipe  extends  through  the  roof  of  the  house,  no 
annoyance  will  be  caused  by  this  opening  into  the  cesspool,  as  the 
draught  will  be  inward  at  that  point. 


2O6 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


The  inlet  pipe  forming  the  extremity  of  the  main  drain  should 
enter  the  cesspool  just  above  the  water  line.  The  outlet  pipe 
should  have  a  quarter-bend  cemented  in  before  setting  in  place,  as 
shown  in  the  figure.  The  mouth  of  the  bend,  turned  downward, 
then  protects  the  outlet  from  the  scum  which  floats  at  the  surface 
of  the  liquid,  and  would  soon  choke  the  irrigation  pipes. 


The  outlet  pipe,  after  leav- 
ing the  cesspool,  should  be  laid 
with  a  very  gentle  but  perfectly 
uniform  pitch,  with  branches  as  indicated  in 
Figure  177. 

\i  i  f  y  The  best  mode  is  to  make  it  of  vitrified 

\  •  t  /       pipe,  laid  with  the  "hubs"  pointing  downward,  in- 
stead of  upward  in  the  usual  way,  and  having  a  Y 

inserted  between  every  two  lengths  of 
Distributing     straight  pipe>      AU  the  joints  should  be 

made  tight  and  smooth  with  cement,  and 
into  the  lateral  branch  of  every  Y  should  be  cemented 
a  piece  of  agricultural  tile  drain.  The  vitrified  pipe 
forming  the  main  carrier  may  be  4  inches  in  diam- 
eter, and  the  agricultural  tile  should  be  2-inch;  the 
Y's  forming  the  connection  being  of  the  kind  called  2X4- 
inch.  Each  lateral  branch  should  then  be  continued  by  a  line  of 
agricultural  tiles  of  the  requisite  length.  If  the  slope  of  the  lot 
permits,  the  outlet  pipe  should  leave  the  cesspool  at  least  two  feet 


Fig.  177 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  207 

below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  running  however,  in  such  direc- 
tions as  to  bring  it,  before  it  begins  to  ramify,  about  twelve  inches 
below  the  sod;  and  the  same  or  a  less  distance  below  the  sod 
should  be  maintained  throughout  the  system  of  branches.  All 
the  pipes  must  also  be  graded  to  a  uniform  fall  of  not  more  than 
one  inch  in  twenty-five  feet,  and  to  fulfil  these  two  requirements 
it  will  generally  be  necessary  to  lay  all  the  lines  in  curves,  deter- 
mined by  the  irregularities  of  the  surface,  and  following  very 
nearly  a  series  of  contour  lines  of  the  ground. 

The  tiles  forming  the  lateral  branches  should  be  laid  J4  inch 
apart,  a  bit  of  paper  put  over  the  joint,  to  prevent  earth  from 
sifting  in,  and  the  trenches  then  filled.  Either  round  or  sole  tile 
may  be  used,  but  sole  tile  are  preferable.  If  round  tiles  are  em- 
ployed, they  should  be  laid  without  collars,  and  pebbles  put  on 
each  side  to  keep  them  from  rolling  out  of  place. 

The  end  of  the  main  line  of  vitrified  pipe  should  not  be  closed, 
but  a  reducer  should  be  inserted,  and  the  line  continued  with 
open- jointed  tiles,  in  the  same  way  as  the  lateral  branches.  The 
principal  object  to  be  kept  in  view  is  the  avoidance  of  any  check 
to  the  continuous  flow  of  the  sewage  until  it  issues  from  the  inter- 
stices of  the  drain  tiles,  to  be  absorbed  and  oxidized  in  the  soil. 
If  any  such  check  is  offered  by  the  displacement  of  a  pipe,  a  sud- 
den dip  in  a  line,  or  an  abrupt  change  in  direction,  the  liquid  will 
throw  down  at  that  point  a  copious  black  sediment,  choking  the 
pipe  in  a  few  weeks,  or,  if  the  main  line  is  closed  at  the  end,  filling 
it  like  a  pocket,  and  successively  cutting  off  the  lateral  branches. 
With  the  greatest  care  some  stoppages  will  take  place,  and  it  is 
wise  to  provide  enough  lateral  pipe  to  dispose  of  any  possi- 
ble flow,  with  a  large  margin  for  contingencies.  For  an  ordinary 
dwelling-house,  inhabited  by  a  family  of  five  or  six  persons,  five 
hundred  feet  of  lateral  outlet  pipe  is  the  best  rule,  and  the  quantity 
must  be  increased  for  a  larger  household.  The  character  of  the 
subsoil,  whether  clayey  or  sandy,  makes  with  this  system  very 
little  difference,  the  exudation  being  absorbed  almost  wholly  by 
the  surface  loam,  which  is  always  porous  enough  to  take  up  a 
certain  quantity  of  liquid. 

For  large  houses,  it  is  unsafe  to  depend  upon  the  sluggish  flow 
of  the  sewage  under  ordinary  conditions  to  keep  the  outlet  pipes 


208  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

clear  of  sediment,  and  a  flush-tank  should  be  arranged,  which  will 
retain  the  sewage  until  a  considerable  volume  has  collected,  and 
then  discharge  it  suddenly,  rilling  the  outlet  pipes  and  washing 
them  clear,  at  the  same  time  that  the  earth  around  them,  by  the 
intervals  of  rest  and  aeration  which  follow  the  discharges,  is  kept  in 
better  condition  for  efficient  purification.  Flush-tanks  containing 
a  siphon,  which  is  brought  into  action  by  various  devices  when  the 
tank  is  full,  are  often  used,  but  a  tilting  tank,  made  of  galvanized 
iron,  of  such  profile  that,  when  full,  it  will  roll  forward  on  pivots, 
is  equally  efficient,  and  much  more  easily  cleaned.  If  the  tilting 
tank  is  used,  it  should  work  in  a  discharging  chamber,  from  which 
the  outlet  pipes  extend ;  and,  in  this  case,  it  is  of  advantage  to  lay 
several  lines  of  outlet  pipes,  radiating  from  the  discharging  cham- 
ber, so  that  the  choking  of  one  line  with  sediment  may  not  make 
the  system  unserviceable.  In  any  case,  the  outlet  pipes  will  grad- 
ually fill  up,  and  it  is  desirable,  even  if  they  continue  to  dispose  of 
the  sewage  satisfactorily,  to  take  them  up  about  once  in  two  years, 
clean  them  out  with  a  stick,  and  replace  them,  just  before  the 
winter  frosts  render  them  inaccessible. 

On  account  of  the  beneficent  activity  of  the  bacterial  colonies 
with  which  the  upper  soil  is  filled  the  sewage  distributed  through 
it  leaves  no  trace  of  itself.  Unlike  the  earth  around  a  deep  cess- 
pool, which  when  uncovered  discloses  a  foul  saturation,  the  soil 
surrounding  irrigation  pipes  shows  after  years  of  service  no  trace 
whatever  of  the  organic  matter  which  has  passed  through  it,  and 
if  the  pipes  are  carefully  laid,  either  on  hard  ground,  on  strips  of 
board,  or  in  the  earthenware  channel  pieces  made  for  the  purpose, 
so  as  to  avoid  depressions  which  may  collect  sediment,  they  will 
work  perfectly  for  an  indefinite  period  in  any  kind  of  soil. 

The  disposition  of  the  surface-water  about  the  house  is  a  mat- 
ter only  second  in  importance  to  that  of  drainage.  The  main 
point  to  be  kept  in  mind  is  that  the  ground  should  everywhere 

slope  at  a  very  sensible  pitch  away  from  the  building, 
Surface  Water  ^  •  «•  ,  <•  , 

so  as  to  throw  rain-water  far  enough  away  from  the 

walls  to  insure  its  absorption  by  the  soil,  or  its  harmless  removal 
by  surface  channels.  If  at  any  point  the  ground  should  be  al- 
lowed to  pitch  toward  the  house,  the  water  of  spring  rains  will  be 
directed  against  the  walls,  and  sinking  through  the  soft  earth 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  209 

which  fills  the  trenches  outside  of  the  masonry,  will  make  holes  or 
"gullies"  close  to  the  building.  If  the  walls  are  well  drained  in 
the  manner  previously  described  the  water  may  pass  away  without 
finding  an  entrance  into  the  cellar,  but  the  stone-work  will  be 
soaked,  and  the  loose  soil  carried  down  by  the  torrent  is  liable  to 
be  washed  into  the  drain  below,  so  as  to  choke  it  and  render  it 
useless.  This  point  is  generally  understood  among  country  con- 
tractors, but  it  is  likely  to  be  neglected  in  practice  when  the  proper 
grading  happens  to  be  inconvenient,  particularly  under  piazzas 
and  porches,  where  deep  holes  are  often  left,  to  collect  the  streams 
of  water  which  soak  through  from  the  outside,  and  direct  them 
against  the  building. 

The  lines,  indicating  the  surface  of  the  soil  as  it  is  intended  to 
be  when  the  work  is  done  should  be  marked  upon  the  underpin- 
ning, bearing  in  mind  that  where  the  ground  is  to  be  grassed  over 
two  lines  will  be  needed,  one  showing  the  grade  of  the  gravel  or 
ordinary  earth,  and  the  other  that  of  the  loam  which  must  be 
placed  above  it  to  support  the  proposed  vegetation.  Where  loam 
enough  is  at  hand  it  should  be  spread  two  feet  deep.  This  will 
afford  a  strong,  thick  growth  of  grass  from  seed  in  a  single  sea- 
son. In  ordinary  cases,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  be  contented 
with  a  foot  or  so :  less  than  this  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  pro- 
duce or  sustain  a  uniform  sod.  With  our  special  agreement,  where 
the  subsoil  is  sandy  or  gravelly,  the  spreading  of  the  excavated 
material  at  a  proper  grade  around  the  walls,  placing  the  loam  on 
top,  with  the  formation  of  a  gravelled  pathway  to  the  doors  out  of 
the  subsoil  material,  will  constitute  all  the  work  to  be  expected  of 
the  contractor ;  and  it  will  remain  for  the  owner  or  his  gardener  to 
smooth  the  surface  of  the  loam  with  a  rake,  lay  a  line  of  sods  at 
the  edges  of  the  paths,  and  sow  the  rest  evenly  with  "lawn  seed," 
and  then  drag  a  bunch  of  twigs  or  a  tree-branch  lightly  over  it, 
and  leave  the  rest  to  nature.  Where  a  bank  or  terrace  forms  part 
of  the  plan  it  should  be  sodded  all  over ;  otherwise  it  will  need  to 
be  repaired  after  every  heavy  rain.  Sods  should  be  laid  in  a  bed 
well  soaked  with  water  and  kept  moist  for  some  days. 

It  will  often  be  found  difficult  on  sloping  ground  to  keep  paths 
and  drive-ways  from  washing  away  in  severe  storms,  and  even 
edging  them  with  paved  gutters  does  not  always  keep  their  sur- 


2io  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

face  in  place.  Such  effects  are  usually  due  much  more  to  the 
working  in  of  water  at  the  sides  of  the  path,  under  the  surface, 
than  to  the  direct  action  of  the  rain,  which  would  have  little  power 
to  disturb  the  gravel  unless  previously  loosened  by  the  lateral  in- 
filtration of  water ;  and  the  best  remedy  is  to  intercept  such  infil- 
trations from  the  sides,  and  at  the  same  time  drain  the  subsoil  of 
the  path,  by  means  of  trenches  filled  with  stones  on  each  side. 
The  trenches  are  best  made  narrow,  but  deep :  sixteen  or  eighteen 
inches  of  breadth  by  two  feet  of  depth. 

Where  pebbles  of  suitable  size  are  plenty  a  narrow  path  may 
be  completely  filled  in  with  stone  to  within  six  inches  of  the  sur- 
face, which  gives  good  results  at  considerable  expense.  Drive- 
ways on  very  costly  estates  are  occasionally  built  with  a  layer  of 
broken  stone  one  or  two  feet  deep ;  or  sometimes  a  single  "French 
drain"  is  run  through  the  middle.  The  latter  plan  costs  nearly  as 
much  as  that  of  two  lateral  drains,  and  is  far  less  effective.  It  is 
impossible  to  take  too  much  pains  in  the  laying  out  of  avenues  and 
paths,  and  they  should  be  marked  through  their  whole  extent  with 
small  stakes  on  each  side,  three  or  four  feet  apart,  so  as  to  judge 
of  the  effect  from  all  points  before  work  upon  them  is  begun. 

When  the  dust  incidental  to  these  operations  has  subsided,  the 
painting  of  the  exterior  may  safely  be  completed.  The  first  coat 

has,  or  should  have  been,  put  on  as  soon  as  possible 
Pafnting  after  the  setting  of  the  wood-work  in  place,  to  prevent 

it  from  warping  or  "checking"  by  exposure  to  the 
sun,  and  will  now  be  perfectly  dry.  The  next  step  will  be  to  fill 
up  all  nail-holes  and  crevices  with  putty,  and  for  this  purpose  the 
heads  of  all  the  nails  used  for  securing  the  exterior  finish,  includ- 
ing clapboards,  must  previously  have  been  "set  in"  to  a  depth  of 
y%  of  an  inch  or  more.  Then,  beginning  with  the  roof,  the  house 
is  to  be  painted  downward,  so  that  the  portions  already  finished 
may  not  be  disfigured  by  spatterings  of  a  different  color  from 
above.  With  the  mineral  reds  generally  used  for  roofs  some  of 
the  color  is  apt  to  wash  down  with  every  rain  for  two  or  three 
weeks  after  it  is  put  on,  so  that  it  is  advisable  to  have  this  portion 
completed  and  dried  as  long  as  possible  before  painting  the  walls. 
The  colors  will  generally  be  chosen  by  the  architect,  whose  expe- 
rience in  such  matters  will  save  him  at  least  from  the  glaring 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  211 

blunders  which  amateurs  are  liable  to  make ;  and  the  general  rule 
is  that  the  smaller  the  building  the  lighter  its  color  should  be. 
Tints  of  green,  yellowish,  brownish  or  grayish  are  by 
far  the  most  popular,  and  with  reason,  since  the  blend-  colors 
ing  of  such  colors  with  those  of  the  surrounding 
vegetation  serves  to  connect  the  building  with  the  ground,  and 
take  away  the  fragile,  portable  look  which  all  buildings  exhibit 
whose  color  contrasts  sharply  with  that  of  neighboring  objects. 
In  rocky  districts  the  gray  of  the  ledges  might  also  be  suggested 
in  some  portions  of  the  building  with  excellent  results.  Where 
the  structure  is  disproportionately  high,  it  is  advantageous  to 
make  a  decided  difference  in  the  color  of  the  paint  between  the 
first  and  second  stories,  bearing  in  mind  that  when  two  different 
colors  are  placed  side  by  side  they  must  be  of  very  different  shades, 
one  being  light  and  one  dark :  never  both  of  the  same  or  anything 
approaching  the  same  depth.  The  first  story  may  be  a  dark 
bronze  green  and  the  second  a  raw-sienna  yellow,  with  very  good 
effect,  and  a  house  so  painted  will  seem  much  lower  and  more 
home-like  than  if  only  a  slight  variation  or  none  at  all  were  made 
in  the  tint  of  different  portions.  Where  the  proportions  of  the 
building  are  such  that  any  apparent  lowering  would  injure  it,  two 
slightly  different  shades  of  the  same  color  may  be  used,  or  the 
whole  painted  of  one  uniform  tint.  The  casings,  corner-boards 
and  blinds  are  usually  painted  of  a  darker  shade  than  the  rest  of 
the  house,  the  blinds  being  sometimes  the  darkest  of  all,  and  some- 
times of  an  intermediate  tint  between  that  of  the  "trimmings"  and 
the  plain  wall ;  but  the  architect  will  be  able  to  judge  in  each  par- 
ticular case  what  treatment  will  most  enhance  the  effect  of  the 
design. 

White  is  often  used,  even  on  large  houses,  especially  where 
they  affect  a  classical  or  Colonial  character,  with  columns  or  pilas- 
ters; and  a  yellow  ochre  body,  with  white  pilasters,  cornices  and 
other  trimmings,  was  often  used  in  the  Colonial  period,  and  is 
still  popular  for  buildings  in  that  style.  Stains,  made  with  oil, 
creosote  or  petroleum,  are  economical,  and  give  a  pretty  effect,  but 
they  do  not  protect  the  wood  so  well  as  paint  does,  and  are  not  so 
durable  as  paint.  Rough-cast,  of  two  coats  of  plaster,  mixed 
with  cement,  and  put  on  metal  lath,  is  much  used  as  an  outside 


212  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

finish  for  country  houses.  Where  this  is  employed,  tarred  paper 
should  be  put  over  the  boarding  before  the  lath  and  plaster  are 
applied,  and  the  lime  should  be  thoroughly  slaked,  to  avoid  pit- 
ting. The  second  coat  should  be  of  Portland  cement  and  sand, 
with  or  without  a  small  admixture  of  lime,  according  to  the  color 
desired,  and  is  usually  thrown  on  with  a  dasher. 

In  the  durability  of  the  various  pigments  used  in  house-paint- 
ing there  is  less  difference  than  is  generally  supposed.  All  colors 
fade  somewhat,  and  as  the  darker  colors,  such  as  olive  and  sage 
green,  show  the  effect  of  fading  more  plainly  than  the  old-fash- 
ioned paints,  buffs  and  light  grays,  they  are  generally  thought  to 
change  more.  The  best  method  of  preserving  the  fresh  look  of 
an  olive  or  bronze  green  is  to  put  it  on  over  a  first  coat  of  red : 
white  lead  strongly  colored  with  Venetian  red,  or  with  Indian  red 
and  yellow  ochre,  will  do  very  well.  The  green  covers  it  per- 
fectly, taking  only  a  transparent,  mellow  tone,  which  is  very 
pleasant,  and  remains  long  after  two  coats  of  green  would  have 
faded  to  a  brownish  shade.  The  most  fugitive  of  ordinary  colors 
for  exteriors  is  vermillion,  which  soon  changes,  unless  under  very 
favorable  conditions,  either  to  a  black  or  white.  Yellows  bleach 
out  by  exposure,  and  browns  acquire  an  ashy  shade,  although  they 
are  perhaps  the  most  permanent  of  all  ordinary  pigments.  Min- 
eral reds  for  roofs  soon  blacken.  The  "Colonial"  yellows,  if 
made  _with  ochre,  are  apt  to  blacken  with  mildew  on  the  lower 
portion  of  the  building,  where  most  exposed  to  rain.  The 
most  durable  of  all  materials  for  painting  is  pure  white  lead,  and, 
in  general,  light  colors  last  longer  than  dark  ones. 

The  supervision  of  the  painting  work  is  not  so  difficult  as  the 
examination  of  the  materials  used.  It  is  hardly  nec- 
essary to  say  that  whatever  may  be  the  composition  of 
the  second  coat,  the  first  coat  should  always  contain  a  large  pro- 
portion of  white  lead ;  not  that  it  is  desirable  to  modify  the  color 
by  the  admixture,  but  because  white  lead  clings  to  the  wood  with 
far  more  tenacity  than  any  other  pigment,  and  retains  with  it  not 
only  the  other  colors  which  are  added  to  it,  but  also  a  second  coat 
of  less  adherent  materials.  The  best  lead  will  keep  its  hold  long 
after  the  oil  with  which  it  was  mixed  has  been  washed  away, 
forming  the  "chalky"  surface  so  familiar  to  us  on  old  buildings, 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  213 

while  zinc  and  other  inferior  paints  blister  and  leave  the  wood 
bare.  Something  may  be  learned  of  the  character  of  the  paint  by 
observing  its  behavior  in  the  pot  and  under  the  brush,  and  still 
more  by  seeing  it  mixed,  and  observing  the  names  on  the  cans  or 
kegs  from  which  it  is  taken.  The  oil  is  very  likely  to  be  of  in- 
ferior quality,  immense  amounts  of  fish  oil  being  employed  to 
adulterate  the  linseed  oil  sold  for  painters*  use.  Fish  oil  dries 
slowly,  never  acquiring  the  hardness  and  resistance  to  adverse 
influences  of  pure  linseed  oil,  so  that  the  adulterated  oil  should  be 
avoided,  except  for  painting  tin  roofs,  where  its  softness  has  some 
advantage  in  enabling  the  paint  to  yield  to  the  expansion  and  con- 
traction of  the  metal  without  cracking.  The  patent  mixed  or 
"chemical"  paints  are  convenient,  and  of  carefully  selected  shades, 
and  are  said  to  last  well  away  from  the  sea-coast;  but  for  build- 
ings exposed  to  salt  breezes  from  the  ocean  most  architects  prefer 
colors  prepared  in  the  usual  way.  Oil  paints  of  any  kind,  after 
long  standing,  become  "fat"  and  work  less  evenly  under  the  brush, 
so  that  a  fresh  mixture  of  good  materials  is  perhaps  always  to  be 
preferred. 

The  paint  should  be  put  on  by  strokes  parallel  with  the  grain 
of  the  wood,  and  long,  smooth  pieces,  such  as  window  and  door 
casings,  should  be  finished  by  drawing  the  brush  carefully  along 
the  whole  length,  so  that  there  may  be  no  break  in  the  lines.  No 
work  should  be  started  in  the  morning  which  cannot  be  finished 
before  night;  for  instance,  if  one  side  of  the  house  is  begun,  it 
should  be  completed,  if  not  to  the  bottom,  at  least  down  to  some 
important  belt  or  other  division  line :  otherwise  the  junction  of  the 
portions  executed  at  different  times  will  show  as  an  ugly  streak. 

Where  a  building  is  much  exposed  to  the  weather,  three  coats 
of  paint  will  not  be  too  much  to  preserve  it ;  but  it  is  usually  better 
to  include  only  two  coats — the  priming  coat  and  one  other,  in  the 
contract.  In  this  way  the  work  will  be  done  better,  as  there  is  less 
opportunity  to  cover  up  deficiencies,  and  the  paint  is  less  liable  to 
blister  than  where  three  coats  are  applied  at  once.  After  two  or 
three  seasons'  wear,  a  third  coat  may  be  put  on,  and  will  stay  in 
place. 

Many  houses,  particularly  at  the  seashore,  where  the  salt  air 
soon  destroys  paint,  are  left  entirely  unpainted,  or  have  the  cor- 


214  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

nices,  door  and  window  casings  and  blinds,  which  would  warp 
and  split  without  protection,  painted,  while  the  rest  is  left  bare. 
Where  an  effect  of  this  kind,  which  is  often  very  picturesque  and 
charming,  is  intended,  shingles  should  be  used  for  covering  the 
outside  of  the  walls,  as  clapboards  are  likely  to  split.  Occasion- 
ally, the  outside  of  a  house  built  in  this  way  is  oiled  with  linseed 
oil,  but,  although  the  effect  is  good  for  a  few  months,  the  oil, 
where  the  rain  can  reach  it,  and  keep  it  soft,  attracts  the  spores 
of  mildew  and  the  walls  blacken.  A  good  "spar,"  or  water- 
proof varnish,  though  more  expensive,  is  very  much  better  than 
oil. 

The  last  part  of  the  outside  painting  is  the  "drawing"  of  the 
window  sashes.  It  is  essential  that  these  should  be  securely  pro- 
tected against  the  absorption  of  moisture,  and  at  least  three  coats 
must  be  applied,  of  red,  yellow,  black,  bronze  green,  white  or  other 
color,  as  may  be  preferred. 

For  inside  work  the  same  materials  are  used  as  for  the  outside, 
but  it  is  even  more  necessary  that  they  should  be  of  the  best 
quality.  Fish  oil,  for  instance,  which  will  soften  on  damp  days, 

is  quite  unsuited  for  inside  use.    The  puttying  should 
Inside  Work    -     *  .,  .,          .^     /     & 

be  done  with  great  care,  to  avoid  unsightly  spots,  and 

one  coat  of  oil  or  paint  must  be  put  on  before  puttying,  to  prevent 
the  putty  from  shrinking  and  falling  out  through  the  absorption 
of  the  oil  from  it  by  the  dry  wood.  In  very  cheap  houses,  finished 
in  hard  wood  or  pine  of  the  natural  color,  two  coats  of  oil  often 
complete  the  work,  and  this  application  answers  well  enough  if 
polish  is  not  desired.  Where,  however,  a  shining  surface  is  in- 
tended, one  coat  of  oil  only  should  be  put  on  to  bring  out  the 
grain  of  the  wood,  followed  by  a  "filling"  of  patent  paste  compo- 
sition, white  wax,  chalk,  oil  mixed  with  pigments  of  some  kind, 
or  with  wood-dust,  and  finished  with  shellac,  or  some  other  suit- 
able varnish,  or  a  wax  polish.  Of  these,  shellac,  if  simply  put  on 
in  one  or  two  coats,  without  rubbing  down,  forms  the  cheapest 
and  poorest  dressing.  If,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  put  on  in  four  or 
five  coats,  rubbed  down  with  emery-cloth  dipped  in  oil  after  the 
last  coat,  it  forms  the  most  expensive,  and  the  best  of  all  applica- 
tions. The  patent  varnishes,  of  which  there  are  many  kinds,  are 
easily  applied,  and  give,  with  two  coats,  a  good  finish.  The  hard 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  215 

wax  polish  gives  a  beautiful  surface,  which  may  be  renewed, 
wholly  or  in  part,  at  any  time. 

Where  a  painted  finish  is  intended,  the  principal  point  to  be 
observed  is  the  thorough  covering  with  shellac,  before  priming,  of 
knots  and  pitchy  places,  which  will  otherwise  discolor  the  paint 
over  them. 

Bad  knots  cannot  be  "killed"  even  by  this  application,  and 
should  be  cut  out,  and  a  piece  of  sound  wood  set  in  their  place. 
The  most  annoying  stains  come  from  the  minute  dots  of  pitch 
which  often  speckle  the  entire  surface  of  a  pine  board,  but  escape 
notice  until  after  the  painting  is  completed,  when  each  one  mani- 
fests itself  by  a  yellow  stain.  Some  architects,  to  make  sure  of 
complete  protection,  specify  that  the  whole  of  the  pine  finish  shall 
receive  one  or  two  coats  of  shellac  before  priming. 

Zinc  is  much  used  for  interior  work  instead  of  white  lead,  and 
is  preferred  by  some  on  account  of  its  freedom  from  the  tendency 
of  lead  to  turn  yellow  in  rooms  which  are  not  well  lighted.  The 
character  to  be  given  to  the  surface  varies  with  circumstances  and 
fashion.  Usually,  a  dead  or  "flatted"  finish  is  preferred,  and  is 
obtained  by  mixing  the  final  coat  of  paint  with  pure  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine instead  of  oil.  Where  the  paint  is  exposed  to  the  contact 
of  clothes  or  fingers,  an  "oil  finish,"  containing  little  or  no  turpen- 
tine, is  desirable,  and  gives  a  somewhat  glossy  surface  which  can 
be  washed  readily.  For  hotel  rooms  and  other  places  liable  to 
much  wear,  a  "china  gloss,"  made  by  mixing  the  paint  with  var- 
nish, is  often  specified  for  the  last  coat,  or  the  whole  is  varnished 
after  completion.  Whatever  the  style  of  finish,  the  manipulation 
should  be  careful  and  neat.  Every  coat  of  paint  except  the  last 
should  be  sand-papered  to  a  smooth  surface,  and  in  each  coat  the 
brush-marks  should  be  so  drawn  as  to  follow  the  lines  of  the  wood- 
work, without  joinings. 

If  fresco  color  is  used,  the  most  experienced  workmen  only 
should  be  employed  to  apply  it.     So  much  depends 
upon  the  consistency  of  the  size,  the  mode  of  putting 
on  the  color,  and  other  circumstances,  that  an  unaccustomed  hand 
is  almost  sure  to  fail. 

Hard-wood  floors  are  not  easily  finished  in  a  perfectly  durable 
and  satisfactory  manner.  The  soft,  elastic  varnishes  which 


2i6  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

answer  for  the  doors  and  standing  finish  are,  although  sometimes 
employed,  unfit  for  floors,  while  the  hard  spirit  varnishes,  though 
more  durable,  will  ultimately  wear  away  in  certain 
portions  of  the  floor,  leaving  the  pores  of  the  wood 
exposed  to  dirt,  which  quickly  fills  them,  and  after  this  nothing 
but  planing  and  revarnishing  will  restore  them.  For  this  rea- 
son, the  ancient  wax  polish,  although  more  troublesome,  is  greatly 
to  be  preferred.  The  wax  fills  the  pores  of  the  wood  so  that, 
although  the  surface  may  be  worn  away,  dust  will  not  enter  so 
long  as  any  wax  remains,  and  by  periodical  waxing  and  repolish- 
ing  the  floor  may  be  kept  clean  and  shining  until  absolutely  worn 
out.  An  advantageous  substitute  for  the  ordinary  wax,  which  is 
so  sticky  as  to  need  frequent  polishing  to  keep  it  bright,  is  made 
by  mixing  it  with  more  or  less  hard  parafHne.  Such  a  compound 
is  sometimes  sold  for  use  in  dancing-halls  in  blocks,  which  are 
scraped,  and  the  resulting  powder  scattered  over  the  floor  "and 
rubbed  into  the  wood  by  the  feet  of  the  dancers;  but  the  best 
varieties  are  softened  with  turpentine  to  a  paste,  which  is  sold  in 
cans,  and  needs  only  to  be  applied  evenly  over  the  floor,  and  after 
a  few  hours'  drying  polished  with  cloths,  or  with  weighted  brush- 
es, made  for  the  purpose  and  dragged  to  and  fro  over  the  room. 
The  same  brushes  are  used  to  brighten  the  surface  when  it  be- 
comes dull,  and  any  worn  spots  can  be  brought  back  to  an  equal 
polish  with  the  rest  by  a  new  application  of  the  wax. 

The  glazing  is  usually  done  by  the  painter,  who  sends  the  sashes 
to  the  building  with  the  glass  all  set,  and  the  superintendent  will 
.  have  little  to  do  except  to  see  that  the  glass  is  of  the 

specified  quality,  and  that  all  the  work  is  left  whole 
and  clean.  The  difference  between  first  and  second  quality 
sheet-glass  must  be  learned  by  observation,  and  in  judging  of  the 
glass  in  a  building  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  much  easier  to 
obtain  small  lights  free  from  defects  or  uneven  places  than  large 
ones ;  and  that  double-thick  glass,  such  as  should  be  specified  for 
all  lights  larger  than  about  16"  X  30,"  unless  plate-glass  is  used, 
shows  any  unevenness  of  surface  more  plainly  than  the  thinner 
sheets. 

This  last  item  having  been  examined,  the  young  architect's 
duties  of  supervision  will  be  ended;  and  it  will  only  remain  to 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  217 

review  the  notes  which  he  ought  to  have  made  during  the  progress 
of  the  building,  in  order  to  fix  in  his  mind  more  clearly  the  obser- 
vations contained  in  them,  and  thereby  prepare  himself  to  carry 
out  his  next  commission  with  still  greater  satisfaction  to  himself 
and  his  client.  More  particularly  for  the  information  of  persons 
intending  to  build,  an  actual  set  of  specifications  for  a  country 
house  of  moderate  cost,  together  with  contracts  for  the  same,  will 
follow. 


PHOEBE  A.   HEARST 
ARCHITECTURAL  LIBRARY 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 
CHAPTER  III 

SPECIFICATIONS  OF  LABOR  AND  MATERIALS  FOR  DWELLING- 
HOUSE  TO  BE  BUILT  ON  FAIRFIELD  STREET,  MELROSE,  N.  Y., 
FOR  JAMES  JOHNSON,  ESQ.,  FROM  THE  PLANS  AND  UNDER 
THE  SUPERINTENDENCE  OF  MR.  EDWARD  TYRO,  ARCHITECT, 
13  RIALTO  STREET,  ALBANY,  N.  Y. 

GENERAL    CONDITIONS 

Each  contractor  is  to  provide  all  materials  and  labor  necessary 
for  the  complete  and  substantial  execution  of  everything  de- 
scribed, shown,  or  reasonably  implied  in  the  drawings  and  speci- 
fications for  his  part  of  the  work,  including  all  transportation, 
scaffolding,  apparatus  and  utensils  requisite  for  the  same;  all 
materials  to  be  the  best  of  their  respective  kinds,  and  all  work- 
manship to  be  of  the  best  quality. 

Each  contractor  is  to  set  out  his  own  work  correctly  and  is  to 
give  it  his  personal  superintendence,  keeping  also  a  competent 
foreman  constantly  on  the  ground,  and  no  contractor  is  to  sublet 
the  whole  or  any  part  of  his  work  without  the  written  consent  of 
the  owner.  The  architect  or  his  authorized  representative  is  to 
have  at  all  times  access  to  the  work,  which  is  to  be  entirely  under 
his  direction,  and  may  by  written  notice  require  any  contractor  to 
dismiss  forthwith  such  workmen  as  he  deems  incompetent  or 
careless,  and  may  also  require  any  contractor  to  remove  from  the 
premises  such  of  his  materials  or  work  as  in  his  opinion  are  not  in 
accordance  with  the  specification,  and  to  substitute  without  delay 
satisfactory  work  and  materials,  the  expense  of  doing  so  and  of 
making  good  other  work  disturbed  by  the  change  to  be  borne  by 
the  said  contractor;  and  each  contractor  is  also  at  his  own  cost 

(218) 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  219 

to  amend  and  make  good  any  defects,  settlements,  shrinkage  or 
other  faults  in  his  work  arising  from  defective  or  improper  ma- 
terials or  workmanship  which  may  appear  within  twelve  months 
after  the  completion  of  the  building,  and  is  to  clear  away  from 
time  to  time  the  dirt  and  rubbish  resulting  from  his  operations, 
and  cover  and  protect  his  work  and  materials  from  all  damage 
during  the  progress  of  the  building,  and  deliver  the  whole  clean- 
and  in  perfect  condition.  All  work  and  materials  are  to  comply 
in  every  respect  with  the  building  laws,  city  or  town  regulations 
and  the  directions  of  the  Inspector  of  Buildings,  and  such  build- 
ing laws,  regulations  and  directions  are  to  be  considered  as  a  part 
of  this  specification  and  the  contract  to  which  it  relates.  Each 
contractor  is  to  give  to  the  proper  authorities  all  requisite  notices 
relating  to  work  in  his  charge,  obtain  official  permits  and  licenses 
for  temporary  obstructions,  and  pay  all  proper  fees  for  the  same 
and  for  use  of  water  for  building,  and  entrance  into  sewers  or 
drains,  and  is  to  be  solely  answerable  for  all  damage,  injury  or  delay 
caused  to  other  contractors,  to  neighboring  premises  or  to  the  per- 
sons or  property  of  the  public,  by  himself  or  his  men,  or  through 
any  operations  under  his  charge,  whether  in  contract  or  extra  work. 

The  contractor  for  the  mason-work  is  to  have  charge  of  the 
premises  subject  only  to  the  right  of  other  contractors,  the  owner 
and  the  architect  or  his  representative  to  have  free  access  thereto, 
until  the  [sill]  is  on,  and  is  to  provide  and  maintain  all  requisite 
guards,  lights,  temporary  sidewalks  and  fences  during  that  time; 
afterwards  the  contractor  for  the  carpenter-work  is  to  take  charge 
in  the  same  way  until  the  whole  is  completed. 

Each  contractor  is  to  carry  on  his  work  at  all  times  with  the 
greatest  reasonable  rapidity,  under  the  direction  and  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  architect.  The  several  portions  are  to  be  completed 
on  or  before  the  following  dates : 

Foundation  to  be  ready  for  sill 

House  to  be  entirely  enclosed 

Chimneys    and    piers    to   be  finished 

Back  plastering  completed 

Outside  finish  completed  and  interior  ready  for  plastering 

Plastering  completed 

Interior  wood-work  done 

Painter's  work  completed 


220  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

MASON 

EXCAVATION,    ETC. 

Set  proper  batter-boards  and  mark  out  the  building  accurately 
under  the  direction  of  the  architect. 

Take  off  the  sod  and  loam  from  site  of  house  and 
for  eight  feet  additional  in  width  all  around.  Excavate  the  cellar 
to  a  depth  of  five  feet  below  the  highest  part  of  the  ground  covered 

bv  the  building1,  making;  the  excavation  eight  inches 
Excavation  .,  1t  Q'  ,  ...  -  .  .  * 

wider  all  around  than  the  outside  of  foundation-walls ; 

excavate  trenches  for  all  walls  two  feet  below  cellar  bottom,  and 
for  footings  of  piers  and  chimneys  eight  inches  below  cellar  bot- 
tom ;  excavate  for  posts  and  piers  of  porches  and  piazzas  four  feet 
below  present  surface;  excavate  trench  four  feet  deep  and  [one 
hundred]  feet  long  for  drain-pipe,  and  excavate  cesspool  eight 
feet  in  diameter  and  twelve  feet  deep.  Excavate  for  dry  well  to 
each  rain-water  leader  where  directed,  eight  feet  from  the  house 
and  five  feet  deep,  and  for  trench  four  feet  deep  from  each  dry 
well  to  house. 

[AREAS,  CISTERNS,  ETC.] 

Separate  the  loam  and  stack  by  itself  where  directed  and  dump 
the  other  earth  from  the  excavations  wherever  directed  within  two 
hundred  feet  of  the  building.  Clear  away  and  remove  all  rubbish 

entirely  from  the  premises  at  the  completion  of  the 
Excavation  building.  Refill  dry  wells  and  around  cellar-walls 

with  small  stones  or  gravel.  Refill  with  ordinary 
earth  around  cesspools,  posts,  piers,  and  pipes.  Ram  thoroughly 
or  puddle  with  water  all  filling  material  every  foot  in  height; 
spread  and  grade  neatly  the  remainder  of  the  material  from  the 
excavation  as  directed,  forming  gravel-walks  and  drive-ways 
neatly,  and  elsewhere  spreading  the  loam  evenly  on  top,  sowing 
in  the  best  manner  with  blue-grass  seed  and  rolling,  and  finishing 
with  two  feet  in  width  of  the  best  sods  on  each  side  of  gravel- 
walks  and  drive-ways,  and  three  feet  in  width  around  house  and 
piazzas,  all  to  be  done  in  the  best  manner,  properly  cared  for, 
watered  and  kept  in  order  until  the  house  is  delivered. 

If  any  blasting  should  be  necessary  for  making  the  excavations 
above  specified  [seven]  cents  per  cubic  foot  will  be  paid  by  the 


BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE  221 

owner  for  blasting,  breaking  up,  and  removing  the  stone ;  but  all 
stone  so  removed  which  may  be  suitable  shall  be  used  . 

in  building  the  cellar  walls  or  piers,  and  for  all  stone 
so  taken  from  the  excavation  and  used  in  the  building,  the  con- 
tractor shall  pay  the  owner  at  the  rate  of  [seven}  cents  per  cubic 
foot. 

Furnish  and  lay  in  the  best  manner  from  outside  of  cellar-wall 
to  cesspool  [one  hundred]  feet  of  first  quality  [Portland,  Akron, 

Scotch]  five-inch  glazed  earthenware  drain-pipe,  all 

..         ,  j    i  ?i      i     i  i     11         j  r      ,11     i  j  Drain-Pipe,  etc. 

uniformly  graded,  the  bed  hollowed  for  the  hubs,  and 

all  jointed  with  clear,   fresh  Portland  cement,  and  the  joints 
scraped  smooth  inside  as  laid.     Leave  the  line  of  pipes  open  until 
inspected  and  approved  before  refilling  the  trench. 
Include  in  the  line  of  pipe  a  five-inch  running  trap  of 
the  same  make,  with  hand-hole,  to  be  placed  not  less  than  six  feet 
from  the  house,  and  the  hand-hole  closed  by  tight  cover ;  and  in- 
clude also  a  5"  X  5"  T-branch  where  directed,  be- 
tween the  house  and  the  trap,  the  branch  of  the  T    ventilation 
to  be  turned  upward,  and  a  vertical  five-inch  pipe  of 
the  same  make  to  be  brought  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
covered  with  a  proper  earthenware  ventilating  cap,  all  jointed 
with  cement. 

Furnish  and  lay  four-inch  glazed  earthenware  pipes  of  the 

same  make,  all  jointed  in  cement,  from  each  dry  well . . 

.  .  J  Underground 

to  the  rain-water  leaders.     Each  pipe  to  turn  with  Pipes  for 

a  quarter-bend  at  the  cellar  wall  and  to  be  brought  Raln" Water 
upward  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  receive  the  foot  of  the 
leader. 

FOUNDATIONS 

All  the  lime  used  in  the  mason-work  throughout  to  be  Extra 
No.  i  [Rockland,  Rockport,  Thomaston,]  and  all  ce-       Lime  and 
ment  except  that  used  for  jointing  drain-pipes  to  be       Cement 
best  fresh  [Rosendale,  Portland,  Louisville,]  of  the       Sand 
[F.  O.  Norton]  brand.     All  sand  to  be  clean  and  sharp,  and  used 
in  proper  proportions. 

Furnish  all  materials  and  build  cellar-walls  18  inches  thick 
to  the  underside  of  sills  of  good  ledge  or  other  approved  stone ;  the 
first  1 8  inches  to  be  laid  dry  in  the  trenches,  and  the  remainder  to 


222  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

be  laid  in  mortar  made  with  lime  and  cement  in  equal  parts  and 
clean,  sharp  sand  in  proper  proportion;  the  whole  to  be  laid  to  a 
line  on  each  face,  well  bonded,  the  joints  filled  with 
mortar  and  all  to  be  thoroughly  trowel-pointed  inside 
and  outside  the  whole  height,  holding  the  trowel  obliquely  so  as  to 
weather  the  pointing  on  the  outside.  Set  the  best  face  of  the 
stones  outside,  both  above  and  below  ground.  Set  stone  footings 
for  piers  and  chimneys  and  foundations  for  range  and  boiler. 
Level  up  carefully  and  bed  the  sill  in  cement-mortar  and  point  up 
around  it  inside  and  outside,  and  bed  and  point  up  around  frames 
of  basement  windows.  Build  piers  of  dry  stone  for  front  granite 
step.  Leave  openings  for  drain,  gas  and  water-pipes,  and  fill  up 
around  them  afterwards. 

Build  the  cesspool  with  circular  wall  of  dry  stone  eighteen 

inches  thick.     Draw  in  the  top  and  cover  with  three-inch  planed 

blue-stone  two  feet  square,  with  man-hole  and  grated 

cover,  set  in  cement  four  inches  below  finished  grade, 

and  the  sod  neatly  turned  down  upon  it.     Build  in  the  drain-pipe 

properly. 

Furnish  and  set  one  step  of  best  clear  [Connecticut]  granite  at 

front  porch,  to  be  eight  feet  long,  sixteen  inches  wide 
Stone  Steps  j  A  i  •  1  i  •  1  •  1  i 

on  top,  and  twelve  inches  high,  seven  inches  to  be 

above  ground ;  the  part  above  ground,  top  and  ends,  to  be  pene 
hammered. 

All  the  bricks  used  in  the  building  except  for  fireplaces, 
hearths,  and  setting  of  range,  furnace  and  boiler  to  be  the  best 

hard  common  brick,  to  be  carefully  culled  for  facing 
Brickwork  .  t  .  ,  -  ,  „ J  ,  „ 

of  chimneys  above  roof,  and  all  to  be  new,  well- 
shaped,  and  of  uniform  size.  All  to  be  laid  wet  except  in  freezing 
weather,  with  joints  thoroughly  flushed  up  with  mortar,  and  all 
well  bonded.  All  brickwork  to  be  afterwards  plastered  is  to  have 
rough  joints,  other  work  to  have  the  joints  neatly  struck ;  and  all 
work  visible  outside  the  house  to  be  washed  down  after  completion 
with  muriatic  acid. 

Build  piers  in  cellar  and  for  outside  work  as  shown  on  plans, 
rs  all  to  be  12"  X  12",  laid  in  mortar  made  with  equal 

parts  of  lime  and  cement  and  wedged  tightly  up  to 
underside  of  timbers  with  slate  chips  in  mortar. 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  223 

Build  the  chimneys  as  shown  on  drawings,  with  flues  8"  X  12" 
or  8"  X  8"  as  shown,  of  hard  brick  in  mortar  made  with  one  part 
cement  to  two  parts  lime,  to  underside  of  roof  board- 
ing; above  roof  to  be  of  selected  brick  formed  ac- 
cording to  drawings  and  details  and  laid  in  mortar  made  with 
equal  parts  of  lime  and  cement,  colored  with  Venetian  red  to  a 
light  red  color,  and  the  upper  four  courses  to  be  laid  in  clear 
cement.  The  brickwork  of  chimneys  to  be  kept  in  all  cases  at 
least  one  inch  clear  of  any  wood-work.  All  withs  to  be  four 
inches  thick,  well  bonded  into  the  walls,  and  all  flues  to  be  carried 
up  separately  to  the  top.  Plaster  every  flue  smoothly  inside  to 
the  top,  and  clean  out  at  completion,  and  plaster  the  outside  of 
each  chimney  from  basement  floor  to  underside  of  roof  boarding. 
Build  in  lead  flashings,  to  be  provided  by  the  carpenter,  and  pro- 
vide and  build  in  eyes  and  set  strong  wrought-iron  stays,  as  di- 
rected, to  all  chimneys  rising  more  than  fifteen  feet  above  the  roof. 
Provide  and  set  eight-inch  iron  thimble  in  furnace-flue,  sixteen 
inches  clear  below  underside  of  beams,  and  five-inch  thimbles  and 
covers  with  ventilating  arrangement  in  laundry,  two  feet  clear 
below  ceiling,  and  in  two  attics,  to  be  three  feet  clear  above  floor 
unless  otherwise  directed.  Provide  and  set  also  8"  X  8"  iron 
cleaning-out  door  and  frame  in  furnace-flue,  two  feet  above  base- 
ment floor ;  and  a  12"  X  12"  door  and  frame  in  each  ash-pit,  close 
to  basement  floor ;  and  8"  X  12"  black  japanned  ventilating  regis- 
ter in  kitchen,  and  6"  thimble  for  range. 

Turn  4-inch  trimmer-arches  on  centres  to  all  fireplaces,  to  be 
two  feet  wide  by  the  length  of  the  breast;  turn  also 
trimmer-arches  in  front  of  range  and  wash-boiler  to 
support  hearths  not  less  than  20"  wide  in  front  of 
each.     Level  up  with  cement-concrete  or  brickwork,  to  receive 
hearths. 

Build  the  fireplaces  with  the  rough  brickwork  only  at  first, 
making  the  opening  three  feet  high  above  top  of  beams,  and  put- 
ting in  two  y2"  X  2"  wrought-iron  chimney-bars  to 
each  opening,  each  bar  to  be  eight  inches  longer  than 
the  opening.     After  the  house  is  plastered  provide  all  materials 
and  build  fireplaces  .and  hearths  according  to  detail  drawings,  and 
cover  securely  with  boards  for  protection  until  the  building  is  de- 


224  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

livered.  The  fireplace  in  parlor  is  to  be  lined  with  ornamental 
cast-iron  plates,  of  pattern  to  be  selected  by  the  owner,  and  to  cost 
ten  dollars  per  set,  exclusive  of  putting  up ;  and  to  have  facings  of 
French  majolica  tiles,  to  be  selected  by  the  owner  and  to  cost 
twenty-five  dollars  per  set,  exclusive  of  putting  up,  and  hearth  of 
royal  blue  glazed  American  tiles  in  three-inch  squares,  with  border 
of  two  rows  of  one-inch  black  glazed  tiles,  with  one  row  between 
of  Low's  three-inch  Chelsea  tiles  of  pattern  to  be  selected  by  the 
owner;  the  hearth  to  be  20"  wide  and  5'  6"  long,  inclusive  of 
border.  All  to  be  executed  in  the  best  manner  by  skilled  work- 
men, the  tile  facings  to  be  secured  in  place  with  polished  brass 
angle-bars,  and  the  hearth  to  be  laid  in  Portland  cement,  and  all  to 
be  thoroughly  backed  up  with  brick  and  mortar.  Make  the  hearth 
within  the  fireplace  of  good  face-brick.  The  dining-room  fire- 
place is  to  be  lined  with  Philadelphia  glazed  brick  to  be  selected 
by  the  owner,  and  is  to  have  facing  of  Italian  griotte  marble,  4" 
wide  and  %"  thick,  with  cavetto  moulding  around  the  opening, 
and  hearth  20"  by  5',  of  American  unglazed  red  tiles  without  bor- 
der, all  executed  in  the  best  manner  and  thoroughly  backed  up 
with  brick  and  mortar,  and  to  have  face-brick  hearth  within  the 
fireplace. 

All  the  other  fireplaces  in  the  building  are  to  be  of  selected 
pressed  brick  with  borders  of  moulded  brick,  as  per  detail  draw- 
ings, and  hearths  of  16"  width  by  length  as  directed,  of  pressed 
brick  laid  flat,  with  border  of  brick  moulded  with  half-round  on 
the  edge,  miter ed  at  the  angles  and  set  with  the  half-round  pro- 
jecting above  the  floor,  all  laid  in  red  mortar  and  neatly  pointed. 
All  fireplaces  to  be  built  in  the  best  manner,  with  y2"  X  2"  chim- 
ney-bars, 8"  longer  than  the  opening,  to  support  those  shown  with 
square  openings,  all  well  backed  up,  and  the  joint  between  old  and 
new  work  thoroughly  broken  to  prevent  the  escape  of  sparks. 
Provide  and  set  neat  ash-grates  to  all  first-story  fireplaces,  without 
dampers. 

Set  the  range,  to  be  provided  by  another  contractor,  in  pressed 

brick  in  the  best  manner,  to  show  a  1 2-inch  pier  on 

each  side,  and  carrying  up  the  face-brick  setting  to  the 

ceiling,  with  lintel  of  rubbed  blue  stone,  five  courses  high  by  the 

whole  length  of  the  breast,  to  hold  the  brickwork  above.     Make 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


225 


hearth  to  the  same  20"  wide  by  full  length  of  range  and  piers,  of 
pressed  brick  laid  flat  in  cement. 

Do  all  excavation  and  other  work  necessary  and  furnish  all 
materials  and  workmanship  to  prepare  for  setting  the  furnace 
to  be  provided  by  the  contractor  for  the  heating. 
Make  cold-air  chamber  under  furnace  not  less  than 
eighteen  inches  deep,  all  of  hard  brick  in  clear  cement,  with  bottom 
of  the  same,  and  make  cold-air  box  ten  feet  long  under  cellar  floor 
for  supplying  the  same,  to  be  18"  deep  by  3'  wide,  with  bottom 

and  sides  of  hard  brick  in  clear  cement,  and  all  plas-  ^ 

,      .  11      •**        •     i_  r,  Cold-Air  Box 

tered  with  cement,  and  covered  with  3-inch  flagstones 

with  close  axed  joints.  Connect  the  cold-air  box  complete  and 
make  tight  all  around  it,  and  leave  the  whole  in  perfect  working 
order. 

Provide   and    set   in   laundry   where    directed    a    35-gallon 
[Steeger's]   best  heavy  tinned  copper  wash-boiler  with  dished 
soapstone  top,  grate,  ash-pit,  and  doors  complete,  and 
with  steam-pipe  connected  properly  into  flue.     All  to 
be  set  ^n  pressed  brick  in  the  best  manner,  and  to  have  hearth  20 
inches  wide  by  the  length  of  the  boiler,  of  pressed  brick  laid  flat 
in  cement. 

Lay  tw<  >•  courses  of  rough  brick  in  mortar  on  top  of  foundation 
walls  behind  sill  all  around  the  building,  and  fill  up  with  four 

courses  of  the  same  between  beams  on  top  of  sill. 

£  £  J.-L.  £     11  j  j  Brick  Filling 

Lay  four  courses  of  the  same  on  top  of  all  dropped 

girts  and  caps  of  partitions  which  carry  beams  in  every  story 
between  the  beams  and  studs,  and  build  a  vertical  4-inch  wall  of 
the  same  from  the  plate  all  around  to  underside  of  roof-boarding. 
After  the  partitions  are  bridged  lay  one  course  of  brick  in  mortar 
between  studs  on  top  of  all  the  bridging  throughout.  Lay  one 
course  of  brick  in  mortar  on  top  of  under  floor  in  each  story 
around  all  chimneys  and  between  the  furring  studs  of  the  breasts, 
filling  the  whole  space  from  brickwork  of  chimneys  to  outside  of 
studs. 

Level  off  the  cellar  floor,  roll  or  settle  thoroughly,  and  con- 
crete the  whole  three  inches  thick  in  the  best  manner, 
the  concrete  to  be  made  with  one  part  fresh  [Ameri- 
can Portland]  cement  to  two  parts  clean  sharp  sand,  and  three 

15 


226  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 

parts  washed  pebbles  or  broken  stone,  and  the  portion  not  covered 
by  wooden  floor  to  be  smoothed  off  neatly,  and  all  left  perfect  at 
the  completion  of  the  building. 

The  mason  is  to  assist  the  other  mechanics  employed  in  the 

building  wherever  his  help  is  necessary,  and  is  to  do 
Miscellaneous  1t  *•«.«•  •     j      -^       1  * 

all  cutting  and  jobbing  required  without  extra  charge, 

and  leave  all  perfect. 

PLASTERER 

[//  this  is  made  a  separate  contract,  the  full  title  and  the  General 

Conditions  should  precede  the  Specification.] 
The  plasterer  is  to  examine  and  try  all  ceilings,  partitions, 
and  furrings,  and  is  to  notify  the  carpenter  of  all 

Furring!?       ^at  are  not  S(luare>  true>  plumb  and  level,  and  see 
that  they  are  corrected  before  lathing,  and  that  all 
are  firm  and  secure. 

Back-plaster  the  whole  of  exterior  walls  from  sill  to  plate  be- 
tween the  studs,  on  laths  nailed  horizontally  y%"  apart 
Plastering      *°  °^ner  laths  or  vertical  strips  put  on  the  inside  of 
the  boarding,  all  well  trowelled  and  brought  out  on 
the  studs,  girts,  and  plate,  making  all  air-tight. 
One-Coat  Lath  and  plaster  basement  ceiling  one  heavy  coat, 

Work  weu  trowelled  and  smoothed. 

Lath  and  plaster  two  coats  in  the  best  manner  all  other 
studdings,  underside  of  stairs,  partitions,  furrings  and  ceilings 
throughout  the  building,  except  in  rooms  marked 
worif °**       "Unfinished"  on  plans,  carrying  the  plaster  to  the 
floor  everywhere.     Laths  to  be  best  seasoned  pine, 
free  from  knots,  bark  or  stains,  all  laid  y%"  apart,  and  breaking 
joint  every  six  courses  and  over  all  door  and  window- 
heads.     The  first  coat  of  plaster  to  be  of  No.  i  Extra 
[Rockland]  lime,  and  clean,  sharp  sand,  well  mixed  with  a  half 
bushel  of  best  long  cattle  or  goat's  hair  to  each  cask  of  lime, 
thoroughly  worked  and  stacked  at  least  one  week  before  using,  in 
some  sheltered  place,  but  not  in  the  cellar  of  the  house;  all  to  be 
well  trowelled,  straightened  with  a  straight-edge  and  made  per- 
fectly true,  and  brought  well  up  to  the  grounds.     The  skim  coat 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


227 


to  be  of  No.  i  Extra  [Rockland]  lime,  slaked  at  least  seven  days 
before  using,  and  washed  [beach]  sand,  and  well  floated. 

Run  moulded  cornice,  not  over  30"  girt,  with  one  enriched 

member,  in  Parlor,  and  plain  moulded  cornices,  not 

//      •        •      T^.    .  T  M  i    f  Cornices 

over  24     girt,  in  Dining-room,  Library,  and  four 

chambers  in  second  story,  and  in  first-story  Hall,  carrying  two 
members  of  the  hall  cornice  up  the  sofHt  of  stairs  to  second  story 
and  around  second-story  hall :  all  to  be  in  accordance  with  detail 
drawings. 

Form  beams  where  shown,  according:  to  detail 
,        .  Beams 

drawings. 

Plant  plaster  centres  in  Parlor,  Dining-room  and  Library,  to 
be  3'  in  diameter  in  Parlor,  and  2'  6"  in  Dining-room 
and  Library,  all  to  be  made  in  accordance  with  detail 
drawings,  and  two  wax  models  to  be  made  and  approved  before 
casting. 

Point  up  with  lime  and  hair  mortar  around  outside  door  and 
window  frames;  clear  away  and  remove  all  rubbish  from  the 
premises  after  the  second  coat  of  plaster  is  on;  clean  the  mortar 
off  the  floors  and  sweep  out  the  house  and  leave  all  ready  for  the 
wood  finish ;  patch  up  and  repair  all  the  plastering  at  the  comple- 
tion of  the  building,  and  leave  all  perfect. 

Whitewash  cellar  ceiling,  walls  and  piers  two 

.     ,,      ,  Whitewash 

coats  in  the  best  manner. 

CARPENTER 

[//  this  is  made  a  separate  contract,  the  full  title  and  the  General 
Conditions  should  precede  the  Specification.] 

Sill,  6"  X  6",  halved  and  pinned  at  angles. 

Plates,  4"  X  6".  Scantlings 

Posts  at  angles  and  opposite  partitions,  4"  X  8". 

Girts,  4"  X  8". 

Braces,  4"  X  4". 

Window  studs,  3"  X  4". 

Door  studs,  4"  X  4". 

All  other  studding,  2"  X  4",  16"  on  centres. 

Partition  caps,  3"  X  4"- 


228  BUILDING   SUPERINTENDENCE 


Soles,  2" 

Girders,  8"  X  10". 

Sleepers,  6"  X  6",  8'  apart. 

Floor  beams,  2"  X  10",  16"  on  centres. 

Headers,  4"  X  10",  and  6"  X  10"  according  to  framing- 
plans. 

Trimmers,  4"  X  10",  and  6"  X  10",  according  to  framing 
plans. 

Rafters,  2"  X  6",  or  2"  X  8",  as  marked  on  framing  plans, 
20"  on  centres. 

Deck  rafters,  2"  X  8",  20"  on  centres. 

Hip  and  valley  rafters,  3"  X  9",  or  3"  X  12",  as  marked  on 
framing  plans. 

Trimmer  and  header  rafters  doubled  and  spiked  together. 

Ridges,  2"  X  10". 

Piazza  and  porch  girders,  4"  X  10". 

Piazza  and  porch  floor  beams,  2"  X  6",  20"  on  centres. 

Piazza  and  porch  rafters,  2"  X  6",  20"  on  centres. 

Hips  and  valleys,  3"  X  9". 

Piazza  and  porch  plate,  6"  X  10". 

Piazza  and  porch  posts,  8"  X  8". 

Sleepers  in  basement  to  be  of  locust.  Piazza  and  porch  posts 
to  be  of  best  well-seasoned  dry  white  pine  or  white- 
wood.  All  other  framing  timber  to  be  good  sound 
spruce,  free  from  large  knots,  waney  pieces,  and  shakes. 

The  house  is  to  be  full  frame,  all  framed,  braced,  and  pinned  in 
the  best  and  strongest  manner,  perfectly  true  and  plumb,  and  in 
accordance  with  the  framing  drawings.  No  wood- 
work is  to  be  placed  within  one  inch  of  the  outside  of 
any  chimney,  and  no  nails  to  be  driven  into  any  chimney.  The 
underside  of  sill  and  ends  of  girders  are  to  be  painted  two  heavy 
coats  of  oil  paint  before  setting  in  place.  The  basement  beams  to 
be  sized  upon  the  sleepers,  which  are  to  rest  on  the  concrete.  The 
beams  of  first-story  floor  to  be  notched  down  four  inches  on  the 
sill  and  mortised  two  inches  more  into  it,  bringing  the  bottom  of 
the  beams  flush  with  the  bottom  of  the  sill,  and  to  be  framed  with 
tenon  and  tusk  into  the  girders,  flush  at  top  and  bottom  :  all  to  be 
well  spiked  to  the  sill,  and  the  tenons  secured  to  girders  with  oak 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  229 

pins.  Beams  of  second  and  third  story  floors  to  be  notched  down 
four  inches  on  the  girts,  and  spiked  to  girts  and  studs,  and  sized 
one  inch  on  partition  caps,  spiking  the  beams  strongly  together 
wherever  possible  to  form  a  tie  across  the  building.  Headers  to 
be  framed  into  trimmers  with  double  tenon  and  pinned,  and  all 
headers  which  carry  more  than  three  tail-beams  to  have  %  "  joint- 
bolts  at  each  end  in  addition.  Tail-beams  to  be  framed  into 
headers  with  tenon  and  tusk  and  pinned.  All  floors  to  be  bridged 
once  in  every  eight  feet  with  a  straight,  continuous 
row  of  double  herring-bone  cross-bridging  of  i"X4" 
pieces,  cut  in  and  nailed  with  two  nails  at  each  end  of  each  piece. 
Beams  under  unsupported  partitions  which  run  parallel  with  them 
to  be  in  pairs,  set  7^/2  "  apart  on  centres. 

Piazza  and  porch  floor  to  be  framed  with  a  4"  X  10"  girder 
from  each  post  or  pier  to  the  house,  set  so  that  the  top  of  the 
girder  is  i"  below  the  top  of  the  sill,  and  pitching 
away  from  the  house  one  inch  in  every  five  feet.  Each 
girder  to  be  gained  one  inch  into  the  whole  depth  of 
the  sill,  and  to  be  secured  to  the  sill  with  %"  joint-bolt.  Into 
these  girders  are  to  be  framed  the  2"  X  6"  piazza  beams,  all  flush 
on  top. 

The  finished  posts  of  piazza  and  porch  will  stand  upon  the 
floor,  with  tenon  4"  long  into  the  girder,  and  the 
plates  are  to  be  framed  into  them  and  pinned.     The 
rafters  are  to  be  notched  upon  the  plate  and  spiked, 
and  strongly  secured  to  house. 

Form  the  cornice  of  porch  and  piazza  as  shown  on  detail  draw- 
ings, all  of  pine,  with  planceer,  facia,  bed-mould,  and 
gutter  all  around  as  shown,  with  leaded  joints,  two- 
inch  lead  goose-necks  and  [four]  three-inch  [tin] 
conductors  where  directed,  properly  supported  and  entered  into 
the  drain  pipes  prepared  to  receive  them. 

The  main  roof  of  the  house  is  to  be  framed  as  shown  on  fram- 
ing plans.     Rafters  to  be  notched  on  the  plate  and 

M        J  T>        J.-A-  U  '      J  £  Mam  R°0f 

spiked.     Partitions  to  be  carried  up  to  support  roof 

wherever  practicable,  and  all  to  be  thoroughly  tied  and  made 

perfectly  secure  and  strong. 

Form  the  main  cornice  as  shown  in  detail  drawings,  with 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

3"  X  4"  gutter  all  around,  facia,  and  planceer,  rebated  ij4"  belt 

at  top  of  wall,  and  raking  moulding  in  the  angle:  all  of  pine. 

Gutter  to  have  leaded  joints  and  three-inch  lead  goose- 

se  necks.     Put  on  |>ur]  four-inch  tin  conductors  where 

directed,  all  strongly  secured  and  properly  entered  into  drain-pipes 

prepared  for  them. 

Gable  finish  to  be  as  shown  on  detail  drawings,  all  of  pine, 

with  i}4"  rebated  piece  at  top  of  wall,  to  show  8" 
Gable  Finish  .«  V>»  ,  •  «  1  -j  r 

wide,  i  J4  plain  planceer  put  on  underside  of  project- 
ing roof-boards  with  %"  furring  between  and  to  show  10"  wide, 
and  corona  and  cymatium  moulding  3^4"  wide  in  all,  to  cover 
ends  of  roof-boards  and  edge  of  planceer,  and  3"  X  3"  bed-mould 
in  the  angle. 

Cover  all  the  roofs,  including  those  of  porch  and  piazza,  with 
good  hemlock  boards,  planed  one  side  to  an  even  thickness,  and 
well  nailed  to  every  rafter,  two  plies  of  pine-tarred 
felt  paper,  breaking  joint,  and  shingle  with  first  qual- 
ity 1 6"  sawed  cedar  shingles,  laid  4^"  to  the  weather,  and  nailed 
with  two  galvanized  nails  to  each  shingle.  Form  dormers,  etc., 
as  shown  on  drawings.  Furnish  wide  counter-flashings  of  4-lb. 
lead  for  the  mason  to  build  into  joints  of  chimneys,  shingle  in 
wide  zinc  flashings  to  turn  up  against  the  brickwork  as  high  as  the 
counter-flashing  will  allow ;  then  turn  down  the  counter-flashing, 
dress  close,  and  cement  perfectly  tight  against  the  brickwork. 
Shingle  in  wide  zinc  flashings  in  valleys  and  around  dormers,  and 
put  on  wide  zinc  apron  to  protect  junction  of  piazza  and  porch 
roofs  and  house  wall,  and  warrant  all  tight  for  two  years  from  the 
completion  of  the  building.  Make  all  tight  under  dormer  sills 
and  around  dormers. 

Make  scuttle  2'  X  2'  in  roof  where  directed,  with  rebated 

frame  4"  high,  and  cover  hung  with  strong  strap 

hinges,  and  to  have  iron  bar  fastening  and  fixtures  to 

keep  it  open  at  any  desired  angle.     Frame  and  cover  to  be  tinned 

and  all  warranted  tight. 

Enclose  the  walls  with  good  hemlock  boards  planed  one  side  to 

an  even  thickness,  and  two  thicknesses  of  good  felt 

paper  breaking  joint.     Shingle  the  whole  of  the  walls 

above  belt  at  second-story  floor  level  with  first  quality  16"  sawed 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  231 

cedar  shingles,  laid  6"  to  the  weather  and  nailed  with  two  common 
nails  to  each  shingle.  Where  the  shingles  come  against  door  or 
window  casings  nail  only  at  the  side  next  the  casing,  with  two 
nails.  Under  window  sills  and  elsewhere  where  exposed  the  nails 
to  be  galvanized.  Shingles  in  gables  to  be  laid  alternately  long 
and  short,  without  selecting  for  uniform  width,  the  difference  in 

length  to  be  ij^".     Cut  shingles,  of  uniform  width 

'  '  ,  .  .     Cut  Shingles 

and  to  pattern  as  per  drawings,  to  be  used  in  panels 

where  shown  on  elevations. 

All  other  portions  of  the  wall  to  be  covered  with  sap-extra 
pine  clapboards,  all  laid  to  a  perfectly  even  gauge 
of  not  over  43/2",  and  all  nailed  to  every  stud  with 
galvanized  nails,  set  in  for  puttying. 

Put  strips  of  zinc  3"  wide  around  all  window  and  door  casings 

throughout,  running  under  casings  and  clapboards  or 
.  .      ,  Zinc 

shingles. 

Form  the  belt  at  second-story  floor  level  according  to  detail 
drawings  by  putting  on  furrings  over  each  stud  on  top  of  the 
under  boarding  and  putting  a  second  boarding  out- 
side, brought  to  a  feather  edge  at  the  top.     The  low- 
est of  these  boards  to  be  planed  on  the  edges  and  the  shingles  to  be 
brought  down  over.     Finish  under  the  edge  with  a  21/4"  bead. 
Under  the  moulding  will  be  a  belt  i%"  thick  and  to  show  6", 
with  the  bottom  edge  rebated. 

Make  also  belt  at  level  of  window-sills  where  shown,  of  a  2*4" 
cove  and  fillet  moulding,  bevelled  on  top  to  correspond  with  the 
pitch  of  the  window-sills,  and  put  on  over  the  shingles,  which 
are  to  be  gauged  to  correspond.  Form  the  front  edge  of  these 
window-sills  so  as  to  continue  the  moulding  without  any  break. 

Form  the  base  as  shown  on  detail  drawings,  on  sides  next  to 
piazza  and  porch  to  be  i}4"  thick,  rebated  on  top,  and  to  show  6" 
high  above  piazza  floor,  with  small  bevel,  stopping 
against  half-posts  of  the  balustrade,  scribed  against 
the  wall.    In  other  places  the  base  will  be  formed  by  i  J4  "  feather- 
edged  piece  standing  out  from  the  wall,  the  clapboards  to  be 
brought  down  over  it,  and  a  i  J4"  bead  to  run  underneath.     All  of 
good,  seasoned  white  pine. 

There  will  be  corner-boards  only  in  first  story  where  clap- 


232 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


boarded,  shingles  being  in  all  cases  brought  out  to  the  angles.    All 

corner-boards,  door  and  window  casings  to  be  i%" 

Corne^board  *mck>  an<^  °^  widths  as  marked  on  drawings,  all  of 

good,  seasoned  pine,  and  the  top  edge  rebated. 
The  porch  will  stand  on  12"  X  12"  brick  piers  to  be  built  by  the 
mason.  Piazza,  to  stand  on  red  cedar  posts,  4'  in  the  ground,  fur- 
nished and  set,  exclusive  of  excavation  and  refilling, 
Porch3  ^  ky  the  carpenter.  Floors  to  be  framed  as  described 
above,  and  to  be  covered  with  y§"  rift  hard-pine 
boards,  not  matched,  laid  close  joint  and  well  nailed  and  the  outer 
edges  rounded.  Finish  under  edge  of  floor  with  a  planed  board  10" 
wide,  case  the  posts  in  front  with  planed  boards,  and  fill  in  between 
them,  and  between  piers  under  porch,  with  jig-sawed  work  of  y%" 
pine  boards  down  to  the  ground,  finishing  with  board,  and  with 
mouldings  broken  around  to  form  panels,  all  as  shown  on  drawings. 
Complete  the  porch  and  piazza,  as  per  detail  drawings,  the  bal- 
ustrades, braces,  turned,  carved  and  ornamental  work  to  be  all  of 
good,  seasoned  white  pine ;  and  ceil  the  underside  of  roofs,  and  of 
all  projections  of  oriels,  balconies,  etc.,  with  %"  matched  and 
beaded  spruce  sheathing  not  over  4"  wide,  on  furring  strips  12" 
on  centres,  formed  into  panels  by  %"  X  4"  bevelled  strips,  planted 
on.  Case  over  the  plate  with  %"  pine  with  £4"  bead  on  each 
edge,  and  finish  the  junction  of  piazza  ceiling  and  main  wall  with 
2"  cove  mouldings  neatly  stopped. 

All  outside  steps  except  the  granite  lower  step  at  front  entrance 

to  have  J^  "  pine  risers  and  i  *4  "  rift  hard-pine  treads  with  round- 

ed  nosings  returned  at  the  ends :  all  to  be  supported 

on  2"  X  12"  spruce  strings  12"  on  centres,  the  outer 

strings  to  be  planed  or  cased,  and  the  foot  of  the  strings  to  be 

notched  upon  the  granite  step  or  upon  a  4"  X  4"  piece  supported 

by  two  red  cedar  posts  4'  in  the  ground.     Enclose  under  ends 

with  vertical  %"  pine  strips,  jig-sawed  as  shown  on  drawings, 

with  bevelled  base. 

Make  bulkhead  entrance  to  cellar,  with  plank  steps  on  plank 

strings,  all  planed,  and  cover  of  4"  matched  pine 

boards,  battened,  hung  with  heavy  strap  hinges  bolted 

on,  in  strong  plank  frame,  and  all  made  tight,  and  furnished  with 

strong  bar  fastening. 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


233 


All  other  outside  finish  is  to  be  of  good,  thoroughly  seasoned 
white  pine  in  strict  accordance  with  elevations  and 
detail  drawings,  and  all  leaded  where  necessary 
make  it  weather-tight.  Project  beams  for  bays, 
oriels,  etc.,  and  do  all  furring  and  other  work  for  completing  the 
whole  in  the  best  and  strongest  manner. 

The  carpenter  must  call  upon  the  painter  to  prime  all  jexterior 

finish  before  putting  up  or  immediately  afterwards, 

,  .  1  11          1  1     j  Priming 

and  is  to  replace  all  work  warped  or  cracked. 

The  Hall,  Laundry,  and  Water-Closet  in  basement  will  have 
single  floor  of  first  quality  %"  rift  hard  pine,  square  joint,  not 
over  6"  wide.     All  other  floors  throughout  the  build- 
ing are  to  be  double,  the  under  floor  to  be  of  good        Flooring 
hemlock  boards,  planed  one  side  to  an  even  thickness, 
well  nailed,  and  two  plies  of  good  felt  paper  to  be  laid  between  all 
upper  and  under  floors.     Under  flooring  in  Hall,  Parlor  and  Bath- 
room to  be  not  over  3"  wide;  in  Kitchen,  not  over  6"  wide;  else- 
where to  be  any  width. 

The  Kitchen,  Back  Vestibule,  Store-room  and  Butler's  Pantry 
on  first  story,  and  Back  Hall  in  first,  second  and  third  stories  to 
have  upper  floor  of  first  quality  rift  hard  pine,  not  over 
6"  wide,  matched  and  blind-nailed.     The  main  Hall  Floods 

on  first  story  to  have  upper  floor  of  first  quality  selected 
quartered  %"  oak,  2.y2"  wide,  matched,  laid  in. herring-bone  pat- 
tern, as  per  detail  drawing,  and  blind-nailed.  The  Parlor  is  to 
have  upper  floor  of  y%"  second  quality  white  pine,  not  over  6" 
wide,  matched,  but  not  blind-nailed,  with  border  of  [Dill's]  par- 
quetry, 20"  wide,  in  maple  and  cherry,  of  pattern  No.  [twenty-six] , 
all  laid  in  the  best  manner  and  warranted  not  to  shrink.  The  Bath- 
room in  second  story  is  to  have  upper  floor  of  alternate  strips  of 
maple  and  mahogany,  not  over  4"  wide,  matched  and  blind-nailed. 

All  other  rooms  and  closets  throughout  the  building  to  have 
upper  floor  of  %"  North  Carolina  pine,  matched  but  not  blind- 
nailed,  not  over  4"  wide  in  first  and  second  story  chambers ;  not 
over  6"  wide  elsewhere.  Make  mitred  borders  to  all  hearths, 
registers,  and  staircase  openings. 

All  under  floors  to  be  thoroughly  repaired  and  cleaned  before 
upper  floors  are  laid. 


234  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

All  hard-wood  flooring  to  be  of  the  very  best  selected  perfectly 
seasoned  stock,  and  all  upper  floors  to  be  kiln-dried,  laid  breaking 
joint  in  every  course,  well  strained  and  nailed  to  every  beam  with 
twelve-pennies,  and  all  neatly  smoothed  off  by  hand  and  scrubbed 
out  at  the  completion  of  the  building. 

Put  on  grounds  for  %"  plastering  in  first  story  and  Y^"  else- 
where, and  put  on  all  angle-beads.    Cross- fur  all  ceilings,  including 
basement  ceiling,  with  i"  X  2"  strips,  12"  on  centres, 
Furring          Cross-fur  rafters  in  finished  attic  rooms  diagonally, 
with  strips  12"  on  centres;  fur  out  attic  outside  walls 
with  studding  to  give  4'  vertical  height,  and  fur  down  attic  ceiling 
to  9'  clear  height.     Set  grounds  for  vertical  sheathing  4'  high 
in  Laundry,  Kitchen  and  Bath-room ;  for  paneHed  wainscot  3'  high 
in  first  and  second  story  Hall  and  Vestibule,  and  stairs  from  first 
to  second  story,  and  for  bases  elsewhere  of  heights  as  specified. 

Fur  chimney-breasts  with  2"  X  4"  studding  set  flatways,  to  be 
everywhere  i"  clear  away  from  the  brickwork;  and  fur  outside 
stone  walls  of  Laundry  in  basement  with  2"  X  4"  studs  set  flat- 
ways.    Fur  for  beams,  arches,  etc.,  as  required.     All  furrings, 
grounds  and  angle-beads  to  be  perfectly  strong,  true  and  plumb. 
Set  all  partitions  with  2"  X  4"  studs  16"  on  centres,  try  with 
a  straight-edge,  and  straighten  and  bridge  before  plastering.    All 
partitions  except  those  that  stand  over  each  other  to 
stand  on  a  2"  X  5%  "  piece,  and  all  partitions  to  have 
3"  X  A"  cap.     Where  a  partition  stands  over  another,  the  studs 
of  the  upper  partition  must  stand  on  the  cap  of  the  partition  below 
— not  on  the  floor  or  on  the  beams.     Truss  over  all  openings  in 
partitions  which  extend  through  more  than  one  story,  or  carry 
beams ;  and  strongly  truss  all  partitions  not  supported  from  below, 
to  take  the  weight  off  the  middle  of  the  beams. 

Bridge  all  partitions  in  first  and  second  stories  with  two  rows 
of  angular  bridging  of  2"  X  4"  pieces  cut  in  and 
nailed  with  two  nails  at  each  end  of  each  piece.     Re- 
verse the  direction  of  the  bridging  pieces  in  each  row.     Line  the 
pockets  for  sliding  doors  with  planed  boards. 
Saw-dust  Fill  in  with  saw-dust  or  planing-mill  chips  between 

Filling  beams  around  all  water  supply  pipes  which  run  in  the 

floors,  making  all  tight. 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


235 


INTERIOR    FINISH 

All  the  stock  for  interior  finish  of  every  kind  is  to  be  of  the 
very  best  quality,  thoroughly  seasoned  and  of  selected  grain,  and 
well  smoothed,  sand-papered  and  kiln-dried  before 
putting  up.  Ash  to  be  best  Indiana  calico  figure,  and 
whitewood  to  be  free  from  white  sap.  The  Laundry,  Kitchen, 
and  Back  Halls  throughout,  including  back  stairs,  are  to  be  fin- 
ished in  hard  pine,  excepting  doors,  which  are  to  be  of  whitewood ; 
the  Front  Hall  and  Vestibule  in  first  story  to  be  finished  in  quar- 
tered oak,  except  stairs  to  second  story,  which  are  to  be  cherry. 
The  parlor  is  to  be  finished  in  maple  and  the  Dining-room  in  ash. 
The  Bath-room  in  second  story  is  to  be  finished  in  mahogany  and 
maple.  All  other  rooms  and  closets  in  first  and  second  stories  to 
be  finished  in  whitewood.  The  hall  and  large  front  room  in  attic 
are  to  be  finished  in  white  pine  for  varnishing.  All  other  rooms 
and  closets  in  attic  are  to  be  finished  in  pine  to  paint. 

Make  panelled  partitions  under  front  stairs  as  per  detail  draw- 
ings, the  framing  to  be  i1/^"  thick,  moulded,  with 
raised  panel  7/8"  thick,  all  bead  and  flush  on  back,      £a*titions 
all  of  quartered  oak. 

Front  Hall  and  Vestibule  in  first  story,  stairs  from  first  to  sec- 
ond story,  and  second-story  hall,  to  have  panelled  wainscot  3'  high, 
according  to  detail  drawings,  with  framing  ^g  "  thick, 
moulded  and  raised  panels  1/4"  thick,  and  moulded 
cap,  but  no  base.     To  be  of  quartered  oak  in  first-story  Hall, 
cherry  on  stairs,  and  whitewood  in  second  story. 

The  Laundry  in  basement  and  Kitchen  in  first  story  are  to  be 
sheathed  4'  high  with  %"  matched  and  beaded  vertical  strips  of 
hard  pine,  not  over  4"  wide,  without  base,  but  with 
neat  bevelled  cap.     The  Bath-room  in  second  story  is 
to  have  %"  matched  and  beaded  vertical  sheathing,  4'  high,  of 
alternate  strips  of  mahogany  and  maple,  3"  wide,  with  neat  bev- 
elled cap  of  mahogany  and  y%"  bevelled  mahogany  base,  4"  high. 
Case  pipes  with  the  same. 

The  Parlor  and  Dining-room  are  to  have  moulded  base, 
y%"  X  10",  according  to  detail  drawings,  to  be  of 
maple  in  Parlor,  and  ash  in  Dining-room.     All  sec- 
ond story  rooms  except  Bath-room  to  have  %"  X  10"  bevelled 


236  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

base  of  whitewood.  All  other  rooms  and  closets  to  have  %"  X  8" 
plain  board  base,  of  hard  pine  in  back  halls  and  back  stairs 
throughout ;  whitewood  in  remaining  parts  of  basement,  first  and 
second  stories ;  pine  to  varnish  in  attic  hall  and  large  front  room, 
and  pine  to  paint  in  other  rooms  and  closets  in  attic. 

Plough  all  bases  together  at  the  angles  and  put  them  on  before 
the  upper  floor  is  laid,  and  allow  y2  "  extra  below  top  of  floor. 

All  doors  and  windows  in  first-story  Hall  and  Vestibule,  Parlor 

and  Dining-room,  and  hall  and  all  chambers  in  second  story,  to 

have  iy$"  X  4/4"  architraves,  moulded  as  per  detail 

drawings.     To  be  of  quartered  oak  in  Hall,  maple  in 

Parlor,  ash  in  Dining-room,  and  whitewood  in  second-story  hall 

and  chambers.    All  other  doors  and  windows  to  haxe  %  "  X  4/4  " 

plain  square  board  architraves,  of  mahogany  in  Bath-room,  and 

elsewhere  of  wood  to  correspond  with  finish  of  room. 

The  architraves  of  doors  and  windows  in  Parlor,  Hall  and 
Dining-room  will  have  corner  blocks  with  carved  rosettes  accord- 
Plinth-blocks  *n£  *°  detail  drawings;  all  others  to  be  mitred.  All 
and  Comer  moulded  door-architraves  throughout  will  have  plain 
Blocks  plinth-blocks.  Architraves  in  Parlor,  first-story  Hall, 

Vestibule,  Kitchen,  Laundry  and  back  halls  to  be  carried  to  floor ; 
elsewhere  to  be  cut  3-16"  short,  to  allow  for  carpet. 

All  stool-caps  to  be  y§"  thick,  with  round  edges,  of  wood  to 

correspond  with  the  finish  of  the  several  rooms ;  and 

in  rooms  with  moulded  finish  to  have  moulding  and 

be  according  to  detail  drawings ;  elsewhere  to  have  bevelled  board 

4"  wide  under. 

Brad  all  architraves,  bases  and  other  moulded  work  in  the 
quirks  of  the  mouldings,  and  set  in  all  finish-nails  for  puttying. 
No  splicing  of  any  architrave  will  be  allowed,  and  joints  of  bases 
must  be  carefully  matched. 

Front  and  kitchen  outside  doors  to  be  made  of  pine  according 

to  detail  drawings,  the  front  door  to  be  2j4"  thick,  moulded  both 

sides,  with  panels  raised  and  carved  outside  only  as 

shown ;  the  kitchen  door  to  be  2"  thick,  moulded  both 

sides,  with  plain  panels  raised  one  side  only. 

All  doors  in  first-story  Hall,  Parlor  and  Dining-room,  includ- 
ing each  leaf  of  double  doors,  to  be  i  J4"  thick,  8'  high,  8-panelled 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  237 

according  to  detail  drawings,  with  flush  mouldings  and  raised 
panels  both  sides.  All  to  have  thoroughly  seasoned  pine  cores, 

veneered  with  quartered  oak  in  Hall  and  Vestibule, 

i      •      -n     i  j        1     •      TV    •  r>k  Inside  Doors 

maple  in  Parlor  and  ash  m  Dining-room.     Doors 

opening  between  rooms  finished  in  hard  wood  are  to  be  veneered 
to  correspond  with  the  rooms;  but  doors  opening  from  rooms 
finished  in  hard  wood  into  closets  or  inferior  rooms,  are  to  be 
veneered  both  sides  with  the  hard  wood.  Doors  from  Hall  to 
Vestibule  to  be  similar  to  other  doors  in  Hall  except  that  the  four 
upper  panels  are  to  be  filled  with  stained  glass  in  lead  work,  to  be 
selected  by  the  owner,  but  paid  for  and  set  by  the  carpenter,  and 
to  cost  $2.00  per  square  foot,  exclusive  of  setting.  All  other  in- 
side doors  throughout  the  house  to  be  ij^"  thick,  of  solid  white- 
wood.  To  be  7'  6"  high  throughout  second  story,  f  high  in 
Attic,  Kitchen  and  Basement.  Second-story  doors  to  be  5~pan- 
elled  according  to  detail  drawings,  with  flush  mouldings  and 
raised  bevelled  panels  both  sides.  Attic,  Kitchen  and  Basement 
doors,  except  sash-doors,  -to  be  4-panelled  square  with  raised 
panels  both  sides. 

The  door  from  Laundry  to  Basement  hall  way  will  have  sash 
in  upper  part,  in  6  lights,  glazed  with  best  J4  "  ribbed 
plate  glass ;  the  glass  and  glazing  to  be  furnished  by 
the  carpenter. 

All  doors  to  have  i  J4"  rebated  and  beaded  frames  of  wood  to 
correspond  with  the  finish  of  the  room,  and  all  to  have  $/&"  hard- 
pine  thresholds.     Veneer  frames  where  necessary  to 
f.  ,.,v  ,  .       .,          orj-         j  Door  Frames 

show  different  wood  on  each  side.     Sliding  doors 

between  Parlor  and  Hall  to  have  astragal  and  hollow  on  the  meet- 
ing-styles. Double  front  outside  doors  to  meet  with  the  ordinary 
bevel,  but  to  have  half  of  a  turned  colonnette  planted  on  one  leaf 
to  protect  the  joint.  Vestibule  doors  and  double  doors  between 
Dining-room  and  Hall  to  meet  with  ordinary  bevel,  and  moulding 
over  joint. 

The  carpenter  is  to  furnish  all  window  frames  and  sashes,  and 
is  to  deliver  the  sashes  and  sash  doors,  excepting 
those  which  he  is  himself  to  furnish  ready  glazed,  to 
the  contractor  for  painting  and  glazing,  and  bring  them  back  to 
the  building  when  completed ;  and  is  also  to  deliver  all  frames  for 


238  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

cellar  windows  and  doors  when  required  by  the  mason  for  build- 
ing into  the  walls. 

All  windows  in  Basement  except  in  Laundry  are  to  have  ify" 
rebated  pine  frames  and  2^4"  sills,  and  ij^"  pine  sashes  hinged  at 
the  top,  with  galvanized  hooks  and  staples  to  keep 
Windows  them  open,  and  strong  japanned  iron  button  fasten- 
ings ;  and  to  have  heavy  galvanized  wire  netting  with 
y%"  mesh  nailed  securely  on  outside  of  frame.  Make  frame  only 
for  cold-air  box  openings,  covered  with  galvanized  netting  in  the 
same  manner. 

The  small  windows  in  Laundry  Closet  in  Basement  and  in 

Coat-closet,  Pantry,  and  China-closet  in  first  story, 
Fixed  Sashes  ,  J '  £  j  T///  • 

are  to  have  rebated  plank  frames  and   il/2     pine 

sashes,  screwed  in  tight. 

All  other  windows  throughout  the  building  are  to  have  boxed 
frames  with  pockets,  2"  sills  pitching  ij4",  and  ploughed  for 

shingles  or  clapboards  as  required,  all  of  pine  except 
Window"""9  beads  and  Pulley-styles,  which  are  to  be  of  hard  pine; 

and  ij^"  clear  pine  sashes  in  lights  as  shown,  with 
moulded  sash-bars  and  counter-checked  meeting  rails,  all  to  be 
double  hung  with  best  steel-axle  capped  brass-faced  pulleys,  and 
best  shoe-thread  sash-line  and  best  iron  weights,  and  well  balanced. 
Inside  beads  to  be  of  hard  pine  throughout,  and  all  put  on  with 
round-headed  blued  screws.  Frames  in  rooms  finished  with  hard 
wood  to  have  a  strip  of  corresponding  wood  veneered  on  the  inner 
edge  of  the  frame. 

Make  and  put  up  dresser  in  Kitchen  as  per  drawings,  all  of 
hard  pine.     To  be  5'  wide  and  8'  high,  including  neat  cornice, 

with  two  cupboards  under  with  shelf  in  each,  and 

four  shelves  above,  enclosed  by  %  "  sash  doors  to  slide 
past  each  other  on  metal  tracks,  with  sheaves  complete ;  all  to  be 
furnished  ready  glazed  with  first  quality  sheet-glass  by  the  car- 
penter and  fitted  up  in  perfect  order. 

Fit  up  the  China-closet 'as  shown  on  drawings  or  as  directed 

A  by  the  owner,  with  stand  for  sink  and  cupboard  under, 
China-Closet     J  ,  £          ,  •      -j  1 

and  four  drawers  each  side;  a  large  cupboard  with 

two  shelves;  six  glass  shelves  6"  wide  on  one  side,  with  open 
fronts,  but  to  have  brackets  and  neat  fancy  turned  standards ;  and 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


239 


five  shelves  on  the  other  side,  14"  wide  and  enclosed  with  %" 
sash  doors  in  front  to  slide  past  each  other  on  metal  tracks,  all  to 
be  furnished  glazed  with  first  quality  glass  and  fitted  up  with 
sheaves  complete  by  the  carpenter.  All  the  work  in  China-closet 
to  be  of  whitewood.  Fit  up  slide  in  partition  with  porcelain  pull 
to  run  sideways. 

Fit  up  Pantry  with  three  barrel-cupboards,  with  neat  panelled 
doors  and  lifting  covers,  one  case  of  three  drawers,  and 
four  shelves  running  all  around.     All  of  whitewood. 

Fit  up  Coat-closet  in  whitewood,  with  one  case  of  four  draw- 
ers, a  shoe  rack  with  eight  compartments,  each  8" 

,  Coat  •Closet 

square,  and  two  rows  of  hooks. 

Fit  up  all  closets  not  specially  described  above  as  marked  on 
plans,  or  as  directed  by  the  owner.     All  closets  hi          C|     t 
second  story  more  than  18"  deep,  and  two  closets  in 
attic,  are  to  have,  unless  otherwise  indicated,  a  case  of  three 
drawers,  with  three  shelves  over,  and  two  rows  of  hooks.     The 
remaining  closets  to  have  two  rows  of  hooks,  and  one  shelf  above. 
All  drawers  to  have  neat  panelled  or  moulded  fronts,  and  to  run 
on  hard-wood  centre  strips. 

Make  tank  in  attic  where  directed,  4'  long,  2'  wide,  and  2'  deep 
inside,  of  I  %"  planed  pine  plank,  with  splined  joints, 
to  be  lined  by  the  plumber.     Make  cover  to  the  same 
of  matched  and  beaded  pine  sheathing,  battened  on  the  under  side, 
with  rounded  edges,  and  hasp  and  padlock  fastening. 

Make  strong  frame  to  support  wash-trays  in  Laundry,  with 
2%"  ornamental  turned  legs,  and  put  neat  covers  to  wash-trays, 
all  of  whitewood.     Put  beaded  strips  of  whitewood 
on  walls  and  ceilings  of  Kitchen  and  Laundry,  and  ££chen  Sink 
mahogany  in  Bath-room,  for  pipes  to  run  on,  and 
case  over  such  pipes  as  may  be  directed  with  neat  casings  of  wood 
suited  to  the  rooms,  screwed  on  with  brass  screws. 

Provide  and  hang  first  quality  I J^  "  outside  blinds  to  all  win- 
dows, divided  and  hinged  with  care  so  as  to  fold  back  neatly  and 
without  interfering.     All  to  have  rolling  slats  in  the 
lower  half  only.     Divided  blinds,  and  those  of  fixed 
windows,  to  be  hung  with  wrought-iron  L-hinges ;  all  others  to  be 
fitted  complete  with  patent  approved  blind-awning  fixtures,  and 


240  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

all  to  have  approved  patent  ring  fasts,  except  those  for  fixed  win- 
dows, which  are  to  have  best  patent  wire  fasts,  so  that  they  can  be 
opened  from  the  outside. 

Furnish  mosquito  screens  to  all  outside  doors  and  windows. 

Those  for  the  windows  to  slide  outside  the  sashes  on  beads  put  up 

for  the  purpose.     Those  for  the  doors  to  be  hung  on 

Net?"'*0        ^e  outside,  with  springs  to  keep  them  closed,  and 

brass  hook  and  staple  fastening.     All  to  be  made  in 

the  best  manner  with  frames  of  clear  seasoned  pine,  %"  thick, 

covered  with  suitable  wire  netting,  and  all  to  be  stained,  varnished, 

fitted,  and  marked  complete  by  the  carpenter,  and  neatly  stored  in 

a  convenient  place  in  the  attic. 

Furnish  outside  sashes  to  all  exterior  windows,  to  be  of  clear 
seasoned  pine,  ij£"  thick,  glazed  with  first  quality  double-thick 
glass,  in  lights  to  correspond  with  inner  sash,  packed 
Windows  w^  n'sting  around  the  edges,  and  arranged  to  be 
secured  by  round-headed  screws  from  the  inside  to 
small  permanent  brass  plates  set  flush  with  the  outside  of  the  cas- 
ing and  firmly  screwed  to  it.  Six  plates  and  screws  are  to  be 
provided  for  each  window,  and  for  convenience  in  fixing,  project- 
ing screws  are  to  be  set  in  the  outside  sash,  by  which  it  can  be  hung 
from  the  edge  of  the  upper  plates,  while  the  other  screws  are  ad- 
justed. All  to  be  made  in  the  best  manner,  glazed,  painted  three 
coats,  fitted  and  marked  complete  by  the  carpenter,  and  safely 
stored  in  a  convenient  place  in  basement. 

The  carpenter  is  to  set  all  mantels  in  the  best  manner,  and  case 
over  for  protection  until  the  house  is  delivered,  re- 
Mante?s         moving  the  casing  only  for  painters'  work,  and  re- 
placing afterwards. 

The  carpenter  is  to  make  mantels  to  all  fireplaces,  and  also 
shelves  with  brackets  in  chambers  which  have  no  fire- 
places, in  the  best  manner,  in  strict  accordance  with 
detail  drawings  and  the  directions  accompanying  them.     To  be  of 
first  quality  thoroughly  seasoned  stock  to  match  the  finish  of  the 
rooms,  and  all  well  bolted  and  dowelled  together. 

Make  strong  step-ladder  of  planed  spruce  to  scuttle 
Step-Ladder    .  ,    J     ,     s 

in  roof :  to  be  removable. 

Fit  up  shelf  along  one  side  of  Laundry  and  Kitchen,  4^  feet 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  241 

above  floor,  strongly  supported,  and  put  one  row  of  hooks  on 

beaded  strip  under  the  same.     Put  up  also  neat  roller  for  towel  in 

Kitchen,  and  hook  strip  over  sink,  and  put  20  feet  run 

of  shelving  in  furnace-cellar  in  the  most  suitable  place, 

and  three  shelves  for  batteries  and  gas-meter  where  directed  by 

the  electrician,  bell-hanger,  and  gas-fitter,  and  swing  shelf  where 

directed. 

Make  in  a  suitable  place  a  strong  double  box  of  i}4"  matched 
and  beaded  pine,  to  contain  ash  and  garbage  barrels, 
with  division  between.  Each  part  to  have  battened 
door  in  front,  with  good  lock  and  two  keys,  for  remov- 
ing barrels,  and  lifting  cover  on  top,  hung  with  brass  butts,  and 
with  brass  hook  and  staple  fastening. 

Put  base-knobs  with  inserted  rubber  to  all  doors, 

£  J    *  A    L    JZ      '    1          £ 

of  wood  to  match  finish  of  room. 

Fit  up  strong  flap-table  in  Kitchen  and  one  in 
,  j  r  •  Flap  Tables 

Laundry,  of  pine. 

Make  two  good  coal-bins  in  cellar  as  directed,  to 
,  .  ,  •  b  ,  Coal-Bins 

hold  ten  tons  each. 

Build  temporary  privy  for  the  workmen,  to  be 
cleared  away  and  the  place  cleaned  out,  filled  up,  and 
graded  over  at  the  completion  of  the  house. 

Cut  the  floor  for  registers  and  hearths  as  may  be  requisite,  and 

fit  borders  neatly  around,  and  cut  as  required  for  m, 

1       u  c.^.  j     xi.  i  •  •      Miscellaneous 

plumbers,  gas-fitters,  and  other  workmen,  repairing 

neatly  afterwards.  Assist  other  workmen  employed  in  the  build- 
ing, furnish  centres,  patterns  for  bays,  lintels,  and  rough  furring 
as  may  be  needed. 

HARDWARE 

THE  sliding-doors  between  Parlor  and  Hall  are  to  be  hung  in 
the  best  manner  with  approved  patent  sheaves  and 
track  complete;  to  have  Russell  &  Erwin's  solid 
bronze  sunk  handles,  pattern  No.  332,  dark  finish, 
and  bronze  astragal-face  sliding-door  locks  and  pulls  of  the  same 
make,  pattern  No.  333. 

16 


242  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

The  front  outside  double  doors  are  to  be  hung  with  6"  X  6" 
g  Russell  &  Erwin's  fancy  solid  bronze  dark  finish 

acorn  loose-pin  butts  of  pattern  No.  15,  three  to  each 
leaf,  with  steel  bushings  and  steel  washers. 

All  other  doors  in  first-story  Hall,  Vestibule,  Parlor  and  Din- 
ing-room are  to  be  hung  with  5"  X  5"  bronze  acorn  steel  washer 
japanned  loose- joint  butts,  three  to  each  door  or  leaf  of  double 
doors. 

All  other  doors  throughout  the  building  are  to  be  hung  with 
4"  X  4"  japanned  loose-joint  acorn  butts  with  steel  washers,  two 
butts  to  each  door. 

The  front  door  is  to  have  Yale  Lock  Co.'s  patent  front-door 
Locks  mortise  lever-lock,  with  brass  or  bronze  face  and 

striking-plate  and  night-latch,  with  one  key  to  the 
large  lock  and  four  to  the  night-latch. 

All  other  doors  throughout  the  building  to  have  Russell  & 
Erwin's,  Corbin's,  or  Nashua  Lock  Co.'s  5-inch  mortise-locks, 
with  brass  face  and  striking-plate,  brass  bolts,  and  German-silver 
or  plated  keys ;  no  two  keys  in  the  house  to  be  alike.  The  outside 
kitchen  door  is  to  have  in  addition  a  Yale  rim  night-latch,  with 
two  keys. 

The  front  outside  door  is  to  have  Russell  &  Erwin's  fancy  solid 

bronze  dark  finish  2^ -inch  knobs,  pattern  No.  923,  on  both  sides 

of  one  leaf  only.     Doors  in  basement,  kitchen  and 

attic  to  have  2^-inch  best  lava  knobs  with  bronze 

roses  and  escutcheons.     All  other  doors  throughout  the  building 

to  have  Russell  &  Erwin's  2j/J-inch  fancy  solid  bronze  dark-finish 

knobs,  pattern  No.  933.     Double  doors  to  have  knobs  on  one  leaf 

only. 

The  outside  front  and  vestibule  doors,  and  double  doors  be- 
tween first-story  Hall  and  Dining-room,  are  to  have  bronze-metal 
Bolts  flush-bolt  at  top  and  bottom  of  the  leaf  which  has  no 

lock,  and  front  outside  and  vestibule  doors  will  have 
in  addition  a  strong  solid  bronze  chain  bolt.  The  kitchen  outside 
door,  door  at  head  of  basement  stairs,  door  of  basement  water- 
closet,  and  doors  of  bath-room  and  all  chambers  in  second  story, 
to  have  mortise-bolts  with  bronze  roses  and  bronze  keys. 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  243 

Cupboard  All  cupboard  doors  to  be  hung  with  brass  butts 

Doors  anci  to  have  brass  slip-latches. 

Drawer-Pulls      All  drawers  to  have  plain  japanned  iron  pulls. 
All  double-hung  windows  to  have  Fitch's  patent  sash-fasts,  to 

be  of  solid  bronze  in  first-story  Hall,  Vestibule,  Par- 

1  j  T^-    -  i,  j  •  T>  r    •  i        Sash-Fasts 

lor,  and  Dining-room;  bronzed  iron  or  Boston  finish 

elsewhere,  and  two  pulls  on  lower  sash  to  correspond. 

Put  heavy  double  hooks  of  japanned  cast-iron  in  closets  and 
other  places  specified :  to  be  in  two  rows  unless  other- 
wise  expressly  directed,  and  to  be  8"  apart  in  each 
row;  those  in  the  upper  row  to  be  set  over  the  middle  of  the 
spaces  between  those  in  the  lower  row. 

All  brass  hardware  to  be  put  on  with  brass  screws,  plated  with 

plated  screws,  bronze  or  bronzed  with  bronze  screws, 

,   .  j      •  i    r  1      j  Screws 

and  japanned  with  blued  screws. 

STAIRS 

[This  is  very  commonly  made  a  separate  contract,  and  in  that  case 
the  General  Conditions  should  precede.] 

The  front  stairs  from  first  to  second  story  are  to  have  open 
string,  moulded  nosings  returned  at  the  ends  and  carried  around 
well-room,  %"  risers  and  treads,  housed  into  the 
wainscot  on  the  wall  side,  the  treads  ploughed  into  the 
risers,  and  risers  ploughed  into  underside  of  treads;  i^4"  fancy 
turned  balusters,  two  to  a  tread  and  around  well-rooms  in  the 
same  proportion,  all  dovetailed  at  the  foot  and  tenoned  into 
underside  of  rail;  2%"  X  3^/2"  double  moulded  hand-rail; 
4"  X  4"  solid  turned,  chamfered  and  fluted  posts  at  angles,  with 
half-post  at  upper  termination  of  rail,  and  5"  X  5"  fluted  and 
carved  box  post  at  foot :  all  to  be  strictly  in  accordance  with  detail 
drawings.  The  posts  and  rail  are  to  be  of  best  Spanish  mahogany, 
all  the  rest  to  be  of  cherry.  Outside  string  on  stairs,  and  face-board 
around  well-room,  to  have  moulding  to  cover  joint  with  plaster. 

The  back  stairs  from  first  story  to  attic  are  to  have  open  string, 

rounded  nosings  returned  at  the  ends  and  carried 

1        n  ~,/n     •  1  11  i       Backstairs 

around  well-rooms :  %     risers  and  treads,  the  treads 

ploughed  into  risers,  and  risers  ploughed  into  underside  of  treads, 
and  both  treads  and  risers  to  be  ploughed  for  the  base  on  the  wall 


244  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

side;  1%"  plain  round  balusters,  two  to  a  tread  and  around  well- 
rooms  in  the  same  proportion,  and  mortised  at  top  and  bottom; 
2"X2%"  plain  moulded  hand-rail,  and  3%"  X  3J4"  solid 
turned  and  chamfered  post  at  each  angle  and  at  foot,  with  half 
post  at  upper  end  of  rail :  all  to  be  according  to  detail  drawings, 
of  hard  pine  throughout. 

The  stairs  to  cellar  are  to  go  down  under  the  front  stairs ;  to 
have  %"  risers  and  treads  with  rounded  nosings,  ploughed  for 

Cellar  Stairs  ^asej  I^//  P^am  roun<^  balusters,  two  to  a  tread,  and 
mortised    into    treads    and    underside   of    rail,    and 
2"  X  2%"  plain  round  hand-rail :  all  to  be  of  hard  pine. 

All  stairs  are  to  be  framed  and  supported  in  the  best  and 
strongest  manner,  on  2"  X  12"  spruce  strings  "12"  on  centres:  all 
to  be  thoroughly  wedged,  blocked  and  glued  in  the  best  manner, 
and  left  clean  and  perfect.  The  stair-builder  is  to  put  on  all  the 
face-boards  and  nosings  around  well-rooms  and  is  to  furnish  and 
put  on  plain  square  hard-pine  base  on  wall  side  of  back  stairs  and 
cellar  stairs,  ploughed  into  treads  and  risers,  and  is  to  do  all  the 
work  of  housing  the  front  stairs  into  the  wainscot. 

BELLS 

[This  is  often  included  in  the  carpenter's  contract.     If  it  is  separ- 
ated the  General  Conditions  should  precede  the  Specification. 
If  electric  gas-lighting  is  introduced  (see  specification  below) 
the  bells  may  be  included  in  the  contract  with  it.] 
Put  in  electric  bells  as  follows,  with  annunciator  in  kitchen, 
battery,  insulated  copper  wires,  push-buttons  to  match  finish  of 
rooms  and  bells  of  five  different  tones,  all  put  in  in  the  best  man- 
ner and  warranted  for  three  years : 

Bell  from  front  door  to  ring  in  Kitchen  and  in  Attic  hall. 
Bell  from  Kitchen  outside  door  to  ring  in  Kitchen. 
Foot-bell  from  Dining-room  to  ring  in  Kitchen. 
Bell  from  Parlor  to  ring  in  Kitchen. 
Bell  from  second-story  Hall  to  ring  in  Kitchen. 
Bell  from  second-story  Hall  to  ring  in  Attic  Hall. 
The  pulls  for  the  outside  front  and  Kitchen  doors  only  will  be 
furnished  by  the  carpenter. 

All  wires  to  be  run  behind  the  plastering. 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  245 

ELECTRIC  GAS-LIGHTING 

[The  General  Conditions  should  precede  the  Specification  unless 
this  is  joined  with  some  other  contract.] 

Wire  all  the  gas  outlets  in  the  building  with  the  best  insulated 
copper  wire,  all  concealed  behind  the  plastering.  The  drop-light 
in  first-story  Hall  is  to  be  wired  for  automatic  burner,  to  light 
from  wall  of  Hall  near  door  to  Vestibule,  and  also  from  east  wrall 
of  chamber  over  Dining-room,  just  under  the  bracket  outlet.  The 
bracket  at  foot  of  cellar  stairs  is  to  be  wired  for  automatic  burner, 
to  light  from  wall  at  head  of  stairs.  All  other  outlets  are  to  be 
wired  for  pull-burners. 

When  directed,  after  the  fixtures  are  in  place,  put  automatic 
burners  on  first-story  Hall  lantern  and  on  bracket  at  foot  of  cellar 
stairs  with  buttons  as  above  specified ;  and  put  four  pull-burners  on 
Dining-room  chandelier,  six  on  Parlor  chandelier,  four  on  brack- 
ets in  Parlor,  three  in  each  of  three  principal  chambers  in  second 
story,  of  which  two  will  be  on  the  mirror  light,  and  one  on  bracket 
as  directed ;  one  on  second-story  Hall  bracket,  and  one  on  bracket 
in  Bath-room.  All  to  be  of  the  best  pattern,  perfectly  tight  against 
any  escape  of  gas;  all  fitted  up  in  the  best  manner,  with  battery 
complete,  and  to  be  kept  in  good  order  free  of  expense  for  two 
years. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHTING 

[The  General  Conditions  should  precede  unless  this  is  joined  with 
some  other  Contract.] 

Wire  the  building  complete  for  incandescent  electric  lighting 
on  the  three-wire  system  for  no- volt  1 6  candle-power  lamps, 
with  outlets  as  marked  on  plans;  all  fixtures  to  be  combination 
gas  and  electric  except  ceiling  lights  in  Vestibule,  Parlor  and 
Dining-room,  which  are  to  be  straight  electric.  Ceiling  light  in 
Vestibule  to  be  single ;  those  in  Parlor  and  Dining-room  to  have 
four  lights  each.  The  Vestibule  ceiling  light,  and  bracket  lights 
in  first  and  second  story  halls,  to  be  controlled  by  switches  where 
marked  in  first  and  second  story  hall,  either  switch  to  control  the 
three  lights;  the  Parlor  and  Dining-room  ceiling  lights  are  each 
to  have  two  switches,  each  switch  to  control  two  lights;  and  the 


246  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

bracket  light  at  foot  of  cellar  stairs  is  to  be  controlled  by  switch 
at  head  of  stairs.  All  other  lights  to  be  controlled  by  key  only. 
All  wire  to  be  approved  rubber-covered,  concealed,  and  installed 
complete  according  to  rules  of  National  Board  of  Fire  Under* 
writers,  and  all  the  work  is  to  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
inspector  of  the  Board.  The  contractor  is  to  furnish  service 
switch  and  main  cutout  where  wires  enter  the  building,  and  other 
cutouts  as  required,  all  conveniently  placed,  and  connected  com- 
plete, and  is  to  wire  for  meter  and  connect  switches,  which  are  to 
be  nickel-plated  flush  snap  switches  of  approved  pattern.  After 
the  fixtures  are  in  place  the  contractor  is  to  connect  them,  test 
thoroughly,  and  leave  all  the  work  perfect,  and  warranted  for  one 
year  from  completion. 

PAINTING  AND  GLAZING 

[//  this  is  made  a  separate  contract  the  General  Conditions  should 
precede  the  Specification.'] 

,  Oil  hard-pine  piazza  and  porch  floors  and  treads 

of  steps  two  coats. 

.  Stain  sheathing  under  piazza  and  porch  roofs  with 

one  coat  of  light  oil  of  creosote. 

Paint  all  roofs  one  coat  of  pure  Venetian  red  in 

oil,  finishing  with  a  second  coat  of  pure  Indian  red. 

Paint  all  other  outside  wood  and  metal  work  two  coats,  of 

three  tints  as  directed :  the  first  story  to  be  one  shade,  the  second 

story  another,  and  the  doors  and  trimmings  a  third.     Paint  also 

the  mouldings  on  belts,  etc.,  where  directed,  in  Ventian  red. 

Paint  the  blinds  three  coats  of  color  as  directed. 

Paint  sashes  three  coats  of  color  as  directed. 

All  hard-wood  floors  and  borders,  including  hard-pine  floors 

in  Kitchen  and  Basement,  are  to  have  two  good  coats 

Floors  °^  °^  anc*  dryer  and  to  be  filled,  and  finished  with 

best  hard  wax,  put  on  in  the  best  manner  and  well 

rubbed.     Other  hard-pine  wood-work,  and  all  ash  and  whitewood 

finish,  to  be  filled  with  oil  filler,  and  to  have  two  coats  of  best 

varnish,  rubbed  down  with  emery  cloth  and  oil.     The  maple 

finish  in  Parlor  is  to  be  filled  with  oil  filler  and  to  have  four  coats 

of  white  shellac,  rubbed  down  with  emery  cloth  and  oil.     The 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  247 

cherry  stairs  are  to  be  stained  in  the  best  manner  to  imitate  ma- 
hogany, filled  with  oil  filler  and  finished  with  two  coats  of  best 
varnish  rubbed  down  with  emery  cloth  and  oil.  The  mahogany 
posts  and  rails  are  to  be  filled  and  varnished  with  two  coats  of  best 
copal  varnish.  Oak  wood-work  in  Hall  is  to  be  oiled  one  light 
coat,  filled  with  oil  filler  and  finished  with  best  hard  wax, 
well  rubbed.  The  pine  in  Attic  hall  and  large  room  is  to  be  oiled 
one  coat  and  varnished  with  two  coats  of  copal  varnish.  Other 
wood-work  in  attic  is  to  be  painted  three  coats  of  pure  zinc  white 
and  oil,  to  finish  with  a  plain  oil  surface,  not  flatted. 

Inside  of  sashes  to  be  stained  cherry  color  and 

sashes 
varnished. 

Varnish  all  exposed  lead  and  brass  pipes  and 

e         i   •  1      11  P'PCS 

bands  with  one  coat  of  white  shellac. 

All  materials  are  to  be  of  the  very  best  quality.  Pure  linseed 
oil  only  is  to  be  used,  mixed  with  turpentine  or  dryer  as  may  be 
necessary.  The  body  for  inside  work  is  to  be  pure  zinc  white, 
and  for  outside  work  to  be  National  Lead  Company's  pure  white 
lead,  unless  otherwise  directed. 

Putty-stop  thoroughly  and  smoothly  all  work  inside  and  out- 
side after  the  first  coat  and  before  the  last  coat,        Puttying 
coloring  the  putty  to  match  the  wood  after  dark- 
ening.    Use  wax  suitably  colored  instead  of  ordinary        Wax 
putty  wherever  wax  finish  is  specified. 

Cover  all  knots,  sap  and  pitchy  places  with  strong  shellac,  and 
kill  knots  or  pitch  with  lime  where  necessary.     Sand- 
paper  all  inside  work,  rubbing  with  the  grain,  and 
clear  out  all  mouldings  before  the  first  coat,  and  sand-paper  after 
each  coat  of  paint,  shellac  or  varnish  except  the  last. 

GLAZING 
[This  is  almost  invariably  included  in  the  contract  for  painting.] 

Glaze  all  inside  and  outside  sashes,  except  those  specified  to  be 
furnished  ready  glazed  by  the  carpenter,  in  lights  as  shown  on 
drawings  or  as  directed,  with  first-quality  double-thick  glass;  all 
well  bedded,  puttied,  back-puttied,  and  tacked,  and  all  repaired  at 
the  completion  of  the  building,  thoroughly  cleaned  and  left  whole 
and  perfect. 


248  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

PLUMBER 

[//  this  is  made  a  separate  contract,  as  it  usually  should  be,  the 
full  title  and  the  General  Conditions  must  precede  the  Specifi- 
cation.] 

Fixtures          There  will  be 
In  Basement:    Set  of  four  Wash-Trays. 
Cold  Supply  to  Wash-Boiler. 
One  flushing-rim  Short  Hopper  with  lead  trap. 
Sill-Cock. 
Furnace  Supply. 

In  First  Story:  One  Kitchen  Sink  with  draining  shelves  and 
wall  plates. 

One  4O-gallon  Bath-Boiler. 
One  Pantry  Sink. 
In  Second  Story:    One  Bath. 
Three  Wash-Basins. 
One  Siphon- jet  Water-Closet. 
In  Third  Story:    Tank. 

All  iron  pipes,  including  both  waste  and  air  pipes,  to  be  of  the 

best  quality,  with  all  proper  fittings ;  all  to  be  double-thick,  and  all 

to  be  thoroughly  coated  inside  and  outside  in  the  best 

manner  with  asphaltum  before  putting  up,  and  the 

outside  to  have  a  second  coat  afterwards :  all  to  be  put  up  in  the 

best  and  strongest  manner  with  iron  hooks  and  stays,  and  the 

joints  caulked  with  oakum  and  melted  lead. 

All  cold-water  supply,  air,  and  waste  pipes  under  2" 
are  to  be  best  drawn  lead,  and  to  weigh  as  follows: 
Rising  Main:     ^-inch  to  weigh  4  Ibs.  per  foot. 

Other  Supply-Pipes: 

i -inch  to  weigh  5  Ibs.  per  foot. 
-?/     a     ((       t(  ft     (t     t( 

*A  4 

r/  ((  ((  ((  ~         ((  ((  (( 

I  /  It  ((  ((  ~         ((  «  (t 

Waste,  Air  and  Overflow  Pipes: 

2-inch  to  weigh  5  Ibs.  per  foot. 
T  j  /   ((     a       t(       _    "     t(     i( 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


249 


Hot-water  pipes  throughout  to  be  of  National  Tube  Works' 
best  seamless  drawn  annealed  brass  tubing,  iron  pipe 
sizes,  with  brass  fittings,  all  put  together  with  red 
lead  in  the  best  manner  and  made  perfectly  tight. 

All  lead  and  brass  pipes  are  to  be  put  up  in  the  best  manner  on 
boards  set  in  place  by  the  carpenter.  The  lead  pipes  are  to  be 
secured  with  hard  metal  tacks  or  brass  bands  and  screws,  and 
brass  pipes  with  brass  bands.  No  hooks  are  to  be  used.  The 
hot  and  cold  water  pipes  are  to  be  kept  at  least  y*"  apart  every- 
where. All  joints  in  lead  pipes  throughout  are  to  be  wiped 
joints,  no  cup-joints  to  be  permitted  anywhere;  and  all  brass  pipes 
are  to  be  put  up  with  right-angled  turns  so  arranged  as  to  allow 
free  expansion  and  contraction  All  connections  between  lead  and 
iron  pipes  and  traps  are  to  be  made  with  cast-brass  ferrules,  of 
the  same  size  as  the  lead  pipes,  soldered  to  the  lead  pipes  with 
wiped  joints,  and  caulked  with  oakum  and  melted  lead  into  the 
iron  pipes. 

The  waste-pipes  are  to  run  as  follows : 

The  main  4-inch  soil-pipe  is  to  be  extended  through  the  north 
side  of  cellar-wall,  and  jointed  air-tight  with  clear 
Portland  cement  into  the  drain-pipe  outside.  From 
this  point  it  is  to  run  with  uniform  pitch  along  the  cellar-wall, 
and  under  floor  of  basement  water-closet,  to  a  point  in  Laun- 
dry under  second-story  water-closet,  with  4-inch  Y-branch  to 
receive  trap  of  basement  water-closet,  with  3-inch  Y-branch  for 
waste-pipe  from  Laundry  wash-trays,  then  turning  up  on  Laun- 
dry wall  with  4t-inch  Y-branch  and  4-inch  brass  trap-screw 
caulked  in  at  the  turn  for  cleaning  out  the  pipe,  and  running 
straight  up  on  Laundry  wall  through  the  Kitchen  floor  and  Bath- 
room with  2-inch  Y-branch  below  Kitchen  floor  for  waste-pipe 
from  Kitchen  sink,  4-inch  Y-branch  below  Bath-room  floor  for 
pipe  from  trap  of  water-closet,  and  2-inch  T-branch  above  all 
other  connections  for  air-pipe  from  traps ;  and  thence  straight  up 
through  and  two  feet  above  the  roof ;  the  top  to  be  protected  with 
brass  wire  netting,  and  a  flange  of  i6-oz.  copper,  18"  square,  to 
be  soldered  on  to  protect  roof,  shingled  in  and  warranted  tight. 

Carry  a  3-inch  iron  pipe  from  the  connection  provided  for  it  in 
Laundry  with  uniform  pitch  on  north  wall  of  Laundry  to  the 


250 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


corner,  there  turning,  with  Y-branch  and  3-inch  brass  trap-screw 
for  cleaning  out,  accessible  from  the  vegetable-cellar,  and  continu- 
ing with  the  same  pitch  on  east  wall  of  Laundry  be- 
kind  wash-trays,  with  Y-branch  for  pipe  from  trap 
of  wash-trays,  to  a  point  nearly  under  pantry  sink  in 
first  story,  and  there  turning,  with  Y-branch  and  3-inch  brass 
trap-screw  at  the  turn  for  cleaning  out,  and  continuing  up  on 
Laundry  wall  to  China-closet,  with  1^2 -inch  Y-branch  under  floor 
for  waste  from  pantry  sink,  and  up  through  China-closet  and 
closets  over  it,  with  double  1^2 -inch  Y-branch  under  second-story 
floor  for  wastes  from  wash-basins,  and  2-inch  T-branch  for  air- 
pipe  from  traps  above  all  other  connections  and  thence  straight  up 
through  the  roof  and  2  feet  above,  with  brass  wire  netting  on  top, 
and  1 8"  X  18'"  flange  of  i6-oz.  copper  soldered  on  and  all  war- 
ranted tight. 

Carry  a  2-inch  iron  air-pipe,  all  caulked  air-tight  in  the  same 
way  as  other  iron  pipes,  from  trap  of  basement  water-closet  be- 
side the  main  soil-pipe  to  the  connection  with  soil- 
Iron  Air-Pipes     .  .  ,    ,  £      ., . r  ,.     ,  .  ,      „  ^  ,          , 
pipe  provided  for  it  in  Bath-room,  with  2    T-branch 

above  Bath-room  floor  for  connection  with  lead  air-pipe  from  traps 
of  sink  in  Kitchen,  and  wash-basin,  bath  and  water-closet  in  Bath- 
room.    Carry  a  separate  2-inch  iron  air-pipe  from  trap  of  Laun- 
dry wash-trays  beside  the  3-inch  waste  pipe  to  the  connection  pro- 
vided for  it  in  second  story,  with  1^2 -inch  T-branches  to  receive 
air-pipes  from  trap  of  pantry  sink  and  second-story  wash-basins. 
The  plumber  is  to  apply  for  J^-inch  service-pipe  from  street 
main  to  house,  and  pay  all  charges,  if  any,  for  it,  and 
is,  when  called  upon,  to  furnish  and  fit  up  temporary 
cock  in  cellar  to  supply  water  for  building.  As  soon  as  the  house  is 
plastered  he  is  to  complete  the  permanent  supply-pipes  as  follows : 
Carry  ^-inch  four-pound  rising-main  up  on  cellar- wall  and 
walls  of  Laundry,  Kitchen  and  Bath-room  to  tank  in 
attic,  with  stop-and-waste  cock  at  cellar-wall,  and 
branches  as  follows : 

In  Basement:     24-inch  branch  to  Sill-cock, 
branch  to  Furnace  Supply. 
"       "  Water-closet  cistern. 
"       "  Laundry  wash-trays. 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  251 

In  Kitchen:     J^-inch  branch  to  Kitchen  sink. 

5^-inch  branch  to  China-closet,  running  on  Kitchen  ceil- 
ing,  and  dividing  in   China-closet  into  three  ^-inch 
branches,  one  of  which  is  to  supply  the  pantry  sink,  and 
the  other  two  the  wash-basins  in  second-story  chambers. 
In  Bath-room:     %-inch  branch  to  bath ;  the  same  to  supply  wash- 
bowl by  a  3/2  -inch  branch. 
YZ  -inch  branch  to  Water-closet  cistern. 

All  hot  and  cold  water  supply,  waste  and  air-pipes  exposed  in 
chambers  and  bath-room  to  be  nickel-plated  brass,  with  plated 
floor  flanges. 

Every  branch  from  the  rising-main  is  to  have  separate  stop- 
and-waste  cock  in  a  convenient  place,  and  so  arranged  that  the 
pipes  can  be  completely  drained  of  water ;  and  each  of 
the  three  branches  in  China-closet  is  also  to  have  vvasteCocks 
separate  stop-and-waste  cock,  to  shut  off  the  pantry 
sinks  or  either  basin  and  empty  the  pipes  at  pleasure.     All  stop- 
and-waste  cocks  to  be  finished  brass  ground  cocks  of  the  best 
quality. 

Line  under  and  behind  all  pipes  and  traps  running  in  floors 
with  eleven-ounce  zinc,  the  horizontal  joints  to  be  well  soldered, 
and  the  upright  joints  to  be  lapped.     This  lining  is  to 
enclose  completely  all  pipes,  to  protect  ceilings  and    Pipe  Lining 
walls  from  any  defect  or  leak,  present  or  future. 
The  lining  to  be  graded  to  certain  points,  and  to  be  connected 
with  ^4-inch  drip  pipes  to  run  to  basement,  and  empty  over  cis- 
tern of  basement  water-closet ;  the  end  of  the  pipe  to  dip  below  the 
water-line  of  cistern. 

Line  with  i6-oz.  tinned  copper  in  the  best  manner  the  tank  in 
attic,  4'  X  2'  X  2',  to  be  furnished  ready  for  lining  by  the  car- 
penter.    Supply  from  the  rising-main,  with  5/^-inch 
finished  brass  compression  ball-cock  and  6-inch  copper 
float,  and  put  in  i  J4~inch  boiler  valve,  with  94 -inch  pipe  to  boiler, 
and  Ij4-inch  lead  overflow  pipe,  to  be  carried  down  beside  rising- 
main  and  to  empty  over  kitchen  sink,  with  the  end  over  the  sink 
turned  up  to  form  a  trap. 

Hot  water  will  be  supplied  to  Laundry  wash-trays, 
Kitchen  sink,  pantry  sink,  bath,  and  three  wash-basins. 


252  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

Furnish  and  fit  up  in  Kitchen,  beside  range,  a  4Ogallon,  first- 
quality,  warranted  copper  bath-boiler,  on  Lockwood  pattern  cast- 
iron  stand,  to  be  connected  to  water-back  of  range 
with  i"  brass  pipe  and  ground-plug  sediment-cock 
union  coupling,  and  to  have  waste-pipe  carried  to  the  waste-pipe 
from  kitchen  sink.  The  boiler  is  to  have  three  brass  pipe-coup- 
lings on  top,  one  for  the  supply  from  tank,  and  the  others  for  two 
separate  ^4-inch  hot-water  supplies.  One  of  these  is  to  be  car- 
ried on  Kitchen  ceiling,  with  54 -inch  branch  to  Kitchen  sink, 
thence  to  Bath-room,  with  ^-inch  branch  to  bath  and  ^2 -inch 
branch  to  wash  basin,  and  to  continue  on  Bath-room  wall  and 
ceiling  to  connect  with  the  coupling  provided  on  the  boiler  for 
circulation,  and  a  J^-inch  expansion  pipe  to  be  carried  from  the 
highest  point  of  the  circulation  pipe  two  feet  above  the  tank,  and 
turned  down  over  the  mouth  of  the  overflow  pipe.  The  other 
% -inch  hot- water  supply-pipe  is  to  be  carried  on  Kitchen  ceiling 
to  China-closet,  with  ^5 -inch  branch  down  on  Kitchen  wall  to 
Laundry  wash-trays,  and  J^-inch  branch  to  pantry  sink.  Be^ 
yond  the  China-closet  it  is  to  divide  into  two  ^-inch  branches, 
extending  to  wash  basins  in  second-story  chambers,  without  any 
circulation  or  expansion  pipe. 

Put  three  finished  brass  stop-and-waste  cocks  on  hot-water 
Hot- Water  supply-pipes  in  China-closet,  to  shut  off  pantry  sink 
stop-and-  and  wash-basins  in  second  story  chambers  separately, 
Waste  Cocks  at  pieasurC)  an(}  drain  the  pipes.  Put  two  cocks  of 

the  same  kind  over  Kitchen  sink,  to  shut  off  the  sink  or  the  Bath- 
room fixtures. 

Furnish  and  fit  up  in  Bath-room  and  two  chambers  in  second 
story,  where  shown  or  directed,  three  best  14  X  17  oval  white 
earthenware  overflow  ground  wash-basins.  Each  to  be  supplied 
with  hot  and  cold  water  through  J/2-inch  pipe,  and  No.  4  extra 
nickel-plated  cast-tube  compression  basin-cocks;  and  to  waste 
through  plated  socket  and  strainer,  with  plated  plug  and  chain- 
stay,  bolted  to  the  marble,  and  plated  safety-chain 
Wash-Basins  AT  JJ  _,  .  ,  '  .  .  ,  *  .  1 

No.   i,  i  j/2 -inch  pipe  to  main  waste  with  i^-inch 

plated  brass  S-trap  close  to  the  outlet,  and  trap-screw,  and  ij^- 
inch  vent-pipe  to  main  air-pipe.  All  pipes,  traps,  etc.,  above  floor 
to  be  nickel  plated,  all  to  have  floor  or  wall  flanges,  plated,  and  all 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  253 

to  be  put  up  in  the  neatest  manner  as  directed  by  the  archi- 
tect. 

Cover  each  basin  with  i^-inch,  best  quality,  blue- veined 
Italian  marble  slab,  dished,  with  all  free  edges  ogee  moulded,  and 
with  J^-inch  wall-plates  of  the  same  marble,  15"  high,  with  ogee- 
moulded  edges.  Basins  to  be  secured  to  marble  with  three  brass 
basin  clamps  and  bolts  to  each,  and  the  joint  to  be  made  tight 
with  plaster-of-Paris.  Marble  to  be  supported  by  fancy  nickel- 
plated  brass  brackets  to  be  selected  by  the  owner. 

Furnish  and  fit  up  in  Bath-room,  where  shown  or  directed,  one 
5^4 -foot  best  enamelled  iron  roll-rim  guaranteed  Perfecto  bath, 
to  be  supplied  with  hot  and  cold  water  through  ^-inch  pipe, 
plated  above  floor,  and  ^-inch  extra  nickel-plated  compression 
bath  bibb-cocks;  and  to  waste  through  plated  socket 
and  strainer,  with  plated  plug  and  chain-stay,  and 
plated  safety-chain  No.  2,  with  2-inch  lead  pipe  to  main  waste, 
and  4.V2"  round  lead  trap,  with  plated  trap-screw  and  i^-inch 
lead  vent-pipe  to  main  air-pipe.     Connect  the  overflow  to  the 
waste  by  15/2 -inch  lead  pipe,  entering  below  the  water-line. 

Furnish  and  fit  up  in  China-closet,  where  shown  or  directed, 
one  recessed  24-02.  tinned  and  planished  copper  14"  X  20"  flat- 
bottomed  overflow  pantry  sink ;  to  be  supplied  with  hot  and  cold 
water  through  tall  extra  nickel-plated  upright  core  compression 
pantry  cocks,  with  screw  nozzle  for  cold  water ;  and  to 
waste  through  plated  socket  and  strainer,  with  plated 
standing  waste  in  recess,  and  i^-inch  lead  pipe  to  main  waste, 
with  4-inch  round  trap  and  4-inch  plated  brass  trap-screw,  and 
I  ^2 -inch  lead  vent-pipe  to  main  air-pipe. 

Cover  with  1%-mch  best  quality,  blue- veined  Italian  marble 
slab,  dished,  with  all  free  edges  ogee-moulded,  and  with  %-inch 
wall-plates  of  the  same  marble,  15"  high,  with  ogee-moulded 
edges. 

Furnish  and  fit  up  in  second  story  Bath-room  where  shown, 
one  first-class  approved  wash-down  siphon  or  siphon- 
jet  water-closet,  of  vitreous  china,  complete  wi 
finished  tank,  seat  and  cover,  all  of  mahogany, 
plated  tank  brackets,  flush-pipe,  rod  and  guide,  and  celluloid  pull ; 
to  be  supplied  through  J^-inch  pipe,  brass  Fuller  ball-cock  and 


254 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


tinned  copper  float,  brass  cistern  valve,  cranks,  lever,  etc.,  com- 
plete ;  and  to  waste  through  4-inch  lead  pipe  to  main  waste,  with 
2-inch  vent  to  main  air-pipe.  Connect  local  vent  to  range  flue 
by  2-inch  copper  pipe,  carried  up  and  across  under  ceiling. 

Furnish  and  fit  up  in  Basement  where  shown  one  best  vitreous 
china  short  flushing-rim  hopper  water-closet,  with  finished  oak 
seat  and  cover,  heavy  lead  trap,  plain  tank,  lined  with  i6-oz. 
tinned  copper,  brass  Fuller  ball-cock  and  copper  float,  brass  cis- 
tern valve,  lever,  etc.,  complete,  with  plated  safety  chain  No.  2, 
and  neat  pull,  and  ij4"  brass  or  heavy  lead  flush  pipe.  To 
waste  through  4-inch  lead  pipe  to  main  waste,  with  2-inch  vent 
to  main  air-pipe. 

Furnish  and  fit  up  complete  in  kitchen  where  shown  or  direct- 

ed one  first-class  Standard  guaranteed  enamelled  iron  roll-nm 

kitchen  sink,  22X42,  with  1  5-inch  roll  back,  air- 

chambers,  bronzed  iron  legs,  and  ash  draining  board 

on  bronzed  iron  bracket.  To  be  supplied  with  hot  and  cold  water 

through  ^i  -inch  pipe  and  J^-inch  nickel-plated  compression  bibb- 

cocks,  the  cold  water  cock  to  have  screw  nozzle;  and  to  waste 

through  6-inch  brass  cesspool  and  strainer,  and  il/2  -inch  lead  pipe 

to  main  waste,  with  6-inch  round  lead  trap  and  4-inch  brass  socket 

and  trap-screw,  with  iJ/2-inch  lead,  vent-pipe  to  main  air-pipe. 

Furnish  and  fit  up  in  Laundry  where  shown  or  directed  a  set 
of  four  best  soap-stone  wash-trays,  on  wood  frame  provided  by 

the  carpenter.     All  to  be  set  complete  by  the  plumber, 
Wash  Trays          ,  ,  ,.    ,        .  ,     f  J  ,        :  ,  t 

and  each  to  be  supplied  with  hot  and  cold  water 


through  JHrinch  pipe  and  ^-inch  finished  brass  compression 
wash-tray  cocks.  To  waste  through  best  silver-plated  wash- 
tray  strainers  and  couplings,  with  plugs  and  safety  chain  No.  2 
all  silver-plated,  and  to  have  one  6-inch  round  lead  trap  for  the 
set  of  four  trays,  with  4-inch  brass  trap-screw,  and  separate  iJ/£- 
inch  lead  waste-pipe  from  each  tray,  all  entered  into  the  trap  be- 
low the  water-line,  with  2-inch  lead  outlet  pipe  from  trap  to  main 
waste,  and  2-inch  lead  vent-pipe  from  trap  to  main  air-pipe. 

Supply  the  wash-boiler,  to  be  furnished  and  set 
by  the  mason>  witn  cold  water  only,  through  ^-i 
lead  pipe,  carried  through  top  of  boiler,  and 
finished  brass  ground  stop-cock  in  a  convenient  position  over  the 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  255 

boiler  ;  and  waste  through  ^4-inch  3-lb.  lead  pipe  to  main  waste, 
with  ^4-inch  [finished  brass  stop-cock,  and  brass  strainer  in  the 
boiler. 

Bore  through  sill  of  house  under  middle  of  front  bay,  or  else- 
where where  directed,  and  put  on  outside  a  J4~inch  Cock 


best  plated  compression  sill-cock.     Supply  by  J 

branch  from  rising  main,  with  shut-off  as  above  specified. 

Furnish  and  fit  up  on  pier  next  to  furnace  a  j£-         &u    \ 
inch  finished  brass  compression  bibb-cock  with  screw         Furnace 
nozzle,  supplied  through  ^-inch  pipe. 

All  work  is  to  be  done  in  the  very  best,  neatest  and  most  thor- 
ough manner.  As  soon  as  the  waste  and  air-pipes  are  in,  the 
outlets  are  to  be  plugged,  and  the  main  soil-pipe  filled  with  water 
to  the  top,  and  all  defects  so  shown  are  to  be  made  good,  until  the 
whole  system  is  perfectly  tight.  As  the  work  is  completed,  every 
part  is  to  be  tested  with  the  water  on,  and  all  defects  are  to  be 
made  good,  and  the  whole  left  perfect  at  the  completion  of  the 
building,  and  warranted  for  two  years. 

GAS-FITTING 
[The  gas-fitting  is  often  included  in  the  plumber's  contract.} 

Pipe  the  house  for  gas  in  the  best  manner  in  accordance  with 

,  the  regulations  of  the  Gas  Company,  with  outlets  as 

marked  on  plans,  [seventy-two}  outlets  in  all.     All 

pipe  to  be  best  wrought  iron,  and  all  fittings  under  2-inch  to  be  of 

malleable  iron.     All  to  be  put  together  with  red  lead,  capped, 

tested  and  proved  perfectly  tight  before  any  plastering  is  done, 

and  the  caps  left  on.     All  pipes  are  to  be  laid  with  a  fall  towards 

the  meter,  which  is  to  be  placed  [in  furnace-cellar  near  west  win- 

dow'] ,  and  all  are  to  be  well  secured  with  hooks  and  bands. 

The  gas-fitter  is  to  call  upon  the  carpenter  to  do  such  cutting 
of  timbers  as  he  needs,  but  no  beams  are  to  be  cut,  notched  or 
bored  at  a  greater  distance  than  2  feet  from  the  bearing;  drop- 
lights  where  requisite  to  be  supplied  by  special  branches.  All 
nipples  to  be  of  the  exact  length  for  puting  on  fixtures  without 
alteration,  and  all  to  be  exactly  perpendicular  to  the  wall  or  ceil- 
ing from  which  they  project.  Bracket  outlets  in  all  Halls  and 


256  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

passages,  Parlor,  Dining-room,  Kitchen,  Bath-room,  Furnace- 
cellar  and  Basement  Water-closet,  to  be  exactly  5'  6"  above  fin- 
ished floor;  elsewhere  to  be  exactly  4'  9"  above  finished  floor. 
Mirror  light  outlets  to  be  8'  above  finished  floor. 

Apply  and  pay  all  necessary  charges  for  service-pipe  from 

street  main  to  inside  of  cellar-wall,  and  connect  the 
Meter0*'"9     seryice-pipe  and  house-pipes  with  the  meter  in  the 

best  manner,  with  stop-cock  on  the  street  side  of  the 
meter,  and  leave  all  perfect. 

HEATING 

Furnish  and  set  where  shown  or  directed  in  Basement  one 
best  quality  No.  26  portable   [Kelsey]   furnace,  in- 
cluding heavy  galvanized  iron  casing  and  top,  8-inch 
heavy  galvanized  iron  smoke-pipe,  tin  hot-air  pipes,   register- 
boxes,   registers,  soapstone  borders,   floor,  partition  and  other 
rings,  wire  nettings  and  dampers  complete,  and  including  also  all 
cartage,  transportation  and  labor  of  every  kind  except  only  mason 
and  carpenter  work. 

In  First  Story:    The  Front  Hall  is  to  have  1 2-inch  pipe  and 
12"  X  15"  register. 

The    Back    Hal1    is    to    have    I2'mch    PJPe    and 
12"  X  15"  register. 
The  Parlor  is  to  have  1 2-inch  pipe  and  12"  X  15"  register. 
The  Dining-room  is  to  have  1 2-inch  pipe  and  12"  X  15" 

register. 
In  Second  Story:    The  Chamber  over  Dining-room  is  to  have 

lo-inch  pipe  and  10"  X  14"  register. 
The  Chamber  over  Parlor  is  to  have  loinch  pipe  and 

10"  X  14"  register. 
The  Chamber  over  Kitchen  is  to  have  9-inch  pipe  and 

9"  X  12"  register. 
The   Chamber   over   Hall   is   to   have  9-inch   pipe   and 

9"  X  12"  register. 
The  Dressing-room  is  to  have  8-inch  pipe  and  8"  X  10" 

register. 
The  Bath-room  is  to  have  8-inch   pipe  and  8"  X  10" 

register. 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


257 


Each  room  is  to  have  an  independent  hot  air-pipe,  and  all  hot- 
air  pipes  to  be  double  where  they  pass  through  floors  or  parti- 
tions, or  behind  furrings.  The  pipes  are  to  be  carefully  arranged 
so  that  all  may  draw  equally,  with  easy  turns  at  every  change  of 
direction.  All  register-boxes  are  to  be  double ;  all  tin- work  to  be 
of  XX  bright  tin,  and  all  wood-work  within  i"  of  any  hot-air 
pipe,  or  within  16"  of  the  smoke-pipe,  to  be  protected  with  pieces 
of  bright  tin,  securely  nailed  on.  All  registers  are  to  be  of  Tuttle 
&  Bailey's  make,  all  placed  where  shown  on  plans  or  as  directed ; 
the  one  in  Parlor  to  be  nickel-plated;  all  the  others  to  be  black 
japanned. 

Make  and  put  up  a  cold-air  box  of  galvanized-iron  as  shown 
by  dotted  lines  on  plan,  to  be  22"  X  331"  in  section, 
all  riveted  together  in  the  best  manner,  and  strongly 
secured  to  cellar  ceiling.     The  mouth  at  each  end  to  be  flanged 
out  to  protect  the  joint  with  the  frame,  and  to  have  strong  gal- 
vanized-wire  netting,  *4  "  mesh,  over  the  opening.     Put  a  sliding 
damper  of  galvanized-iron  in  each  end,  and  make  door  24"  X  30" 
for  cleaning  out,  with  button  fastening. 

Clean  up  the  iron-work  and  leave  it  neat  at  the  completion  of 
the  building,  and  furnish  a  shaking  handle,  poker  and  iron  shovel. 

Furnish  and  fit  up  where  shown  or  directed  in  kitchen  a  No. 
8  [Glenwood]  portable  range  complete,  with  Russia 
iron  smoke-pipe,  water  front  and  couplings,  and  zinc 
floor-board,  all  to  be  set  complete,  including  all  transportation  and 
labor.     Clean  up  the  range  and  leave  it  neat  at  the  completion  of 
the  building,  and  furnish  the  usual  list  of  tin  and  iron  ware. 

Furnish  and  set  up  where  directed  in  Laundry  a  [Walker's'] 
No.  i  stationary  laundry  stove,  complete,  with  gal- 
vanized iron  smoke-pipe  and  zinc  stove-board;  all        stove* ry 
to  be  left  neat  and  perfect. 


CONTRACTS. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Not  the  least  important  of  the  young  architect's  duties  is  that 
of  guarding  the  interests  of  his  employer  by  means  of  a  clear  and 
explicit  contract  with  each  of  the  mechanics  employed  on  his 
building.  In  general  the  architect  himself  will  have  to  draw  up 
these  instruments,  the  ordinary  printed  forms  being  quite  inade- 
quate for  the  purpose,  and  he  will  find  the  task  not  always  an  easy 
one.  While  it  is  incumbent  on  him  to  secure  the  best  and  safest 
terms  for  his  employer  that  the  contractors  will  agree  to,  he  has 
no  right  to  use  unfair  means  to  induce  them  to  sign  their  names 
to  stipulations  of  which  they  do  not  fully  understand  the  meaning ; 
and  if  he  wishes  to  be  able  to  enforce  the  contract  in  case  of  need 
he  cannot  be  too  careful  to  express  in  the  plainest  language  every 
point  upon  which  it  may  subsequently  be  necessary  to  insist. 

In  order  to  provide  for  all  possible  contingencies  it  is  necessary 
to  define  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  parties  under  a  great  variety 
of  circumstances,  and  a  good  contract  will  for  this  reason  be  some- 
what long;  but  this  is  better  than  a  condensation  which  leaves 
loopholes  for  evasion  or  dispute. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  contracts  are  often  entered  into 
unthinkingly,  which  may  prove  very  disadvantageous  for  one  of 
the  parties,  and  the  architect  must  be  careful  to  protect  his  prin- 
cipal from  such  mishaps.  Thus  the  making  of  a  bid  for  work  by 
a  mechanic,  and  its  unconditional  acceptance  by  the  owner,  or  the 
architect  for  him,  constitute  a  valid  agreement,  by  which  the 
mechanic  is  bound  to  do  the  work,  and  the  owner  to  pay  for  it, 
perhaps  without  any  stipulations  as  to  the  time  of  completion,  the 
terms  of  payment,  or  other  very  important  matters,  which  may 
have  to  be  decided  afterwards  by  costly  litigation.  For  this 

(258) 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  259 

reason  many  architects  accept  a  tender  only  upon  the  condition 
that  a  satisfactory  contract  shall  be  signed  by  the  party  offering 
it ;  but  such  a  conditional  acceptance  does  not  bind  the  latter,  who 
is  then  at  liberty  to  withdraw  his  bid,  if  he  chooses,  at  any  time 
before  the  final  agreement  is  signed.  If,  therefore,  any  tender 
should  be  particularly  advantageous,  it  may  be  desirable  to  prevent 
its  withdrawal  by  a  prompt  and  definite  acceptance,  and  in  order 
that  this  may  carry  with  it  by  implication  the  consent  of  the 
parties  to  at  least  the  more  important  clauses  of  an  ordinary  corn- 
tract,  it  is  usual  to  employ  the  device  of  General  Conditions,  which 
are  prefixed  to  every  specification,  and  constitute  a  part  of  it ;  and 
since  the  tender  is  always  for  doing  work  or  furnishing  material 
according  to  the  specification,  the  general  conditions  will  be 
included  in  the  terms  to  which  the  bidder  offers  to  conform,  and 
will  be  binding  upon  him  if  his  bid  is  accepted.  As  the  general 
conditions  relate  to  the  duties  of  the  mechanic,  not  to  those  of  the 
owner,  the  former  will  usually  be  very  willing  to  exchange  the 
one-sided  agreement  constituted  by  them,  under  which,  for  in- 
stance, the  owner  would  not  be  required  to  make  any  payments 
before  the  completion  of  the  work,  for  a  new  one,  defining  the 
rights  of  both  parties;  and  the  new  contract  may,  and  should, 
comprise  the  substance  of  the  general  conditions  of  the  specifica- 
tions, expressed  in  nearly  the  same  words. 

A  building  contract  is  usually  divided  into  two  portions,  the 
first  of  which  is  the  simple  agreement  of  one  party  to  do  a  certain 
work  for  the  other  within  a  certain  time,  in  consideration  of  a 
certain  payment,  which  the  latter  promises  to  make;  while  the 
second  comprises  the  conditions  which  explain,  or  modify,  the 
principal  agreement.  The  first  portion,  comprising  the  essence 
of  the  contract,  should  be  drawn  up  with  special  care,  and  although 
expressed  in  the  briefest  possible  terms,  it  should  be  made  to 
include  the  points  regarded  as  most  important.  In  English  con- 
tracts the  principal  agreement  is  generally  written  without  any 
punctuation  except  periods  at  the  ends  of  the  sentences,  the  object 
of  this  being  .as  much  to  enforce  clearness  of  expression  as  to  pre- 
vent the  possibility  of  fraudulent  or  careless  change  in  the  sense 
by  the  alteration  of  points,  and  the  practice  seems  to  be  a  useful 
one.  The  conditions  which  follow  may  have  ordinary  punctua^ 


260  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

tion  or  not,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  make  them  intelligible  with- 
out it. 

Whether  contracts  should  be  sealed  by  the  signers  or  not  is 
perhaps  doubtful.     A  simple  agreement,  in  which  a  consideration 
is  expressed  for  each  promise,  would  not  require  seals, 
but  among  the  many  and  various  stipulations  of  a 
building  contract  some  might  possibly  be  regarded  as  promises  to 
which  the  consideration  did  not  apply,  and  a  seal  would  be  required 
to  make  these  valid ;  so  that  it  seems  to  be  a  reasonable  precaution 
to  affix  them. 

In  some  states  building  contracts  must  be  recorded  by  the 
proper  public  officer,  and  the  law  in  this  respect  should  be  ascer- 
tained by  architects  practising  beyond  the  boundaries  of  their  own 
state.  The  statutes  in  regard  to  the  liens  of  mechanics  and 
material-men  also  vary  in  different  states,  and  are  frequently 
changed,  so  that  some  care  is  necessary  to  secure  owners  absolutely 
against  loss  by  the  dishonesty  or  bankruptcy  of  the  builder.  In 
most  states  the  right  of  mechanics  to  file  liens  against  a  building 
or  estate  to  recover  the  amount  of  their  wages  for  work  upon  it 
is  barred  at  the  expiration  of  thirty  days  from  the  time  that  they 
cease  their  labor,  so  that  if  the  record  after  this  time  shows  no 
lien  to  have  been  filed,  the  contractor  may  be  paid  the  balance  due 
him  in  full,  without  fear  that  the  workmen  can  demand  an  addi- 
tional sum.  Where  sixty  days  or  more  are  allowed  by  law  for 
filing  liens,  the  last  payment  to  the  contractor  must  be  deferred 
until  after  the  lapse  of  this  term,  allowing  a  few  days  more  to  give 
opportunity  for  examining  the  record.  Liens  for  materials  fur- 
nished to  a  contractor  can  in  most  states  only  be  claimed  by  giving 
notice  to  the  owner  of  the  building  in  which  they  are  used,  before 
they  are  delivered,  that  he  will  be  held  responsible  for  the  price  of 
them,  and  he  can  then  retain  the  amount  out  of  the  payments  to 
the  contractor,  or  he  can  notify  the  dealer  that  he  will  not  receive 
them,  and  the  latter  can  then  only  look  to  the  builder  for  his  pay, 

With  these  explanations,  the  clauses  in  the  following  form  of 
contract  will  be  sufficiently  clear.  The  insurance  clause  may  need 
modification  according  to  circumstances,  but  the  important  points 
are  to  make  sure  that  the  builder's  interest  will  be  covered,  so  that 
in  case  of  loss  he  may  not  be  thrown  into  bankruptcy,  to  the  injury 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  26 1 

of  the  owner ;  and  to  define  clearly  the  mode  in  which  the  policy 
shall  be  taken  out  and  paid  for,  so  that  the  building  may  not  be 
left  unprotected  through  any  misunderstanding  between  the 
owner  and  contractor  as  to  each  other's  duty. 

CONTRACT  FOR  BUILDING  made  this  sixteenth  day  of  April 
in  the  year  nineteen  hundred  and  three  by  and  between  James 
Johnson  of  Boston  in  the  county  of  Suffolk  and  Commonwealth 
of  Massachusetts  party  of  the  first  part  and  Thomas  Smith  and 
Henry  Smith  of  Chelsea  in  the  County  and  Commonwealth  afore- 
said carpenters  under  the  firm  name  and  style  of  Smith  Brothers 
builders  party  of  the  second  part. 

The  said  Smith  Brothers  party  of  the  second  part  for  them- 
selves and  each  of  their  heirs  executors  administrators  and  assigns 
hereby  covenant  and  agree  to  and  with  the  said  party  of  the  first 
part  his  heirs  successors  and  legal  representatives  for  the  con- 
sideration hereinafter  mentioned  to  make  erect  build  and  finish 
for  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  on  his  land  in  said  Chelsea  ct 
dwelling-house  including  all  the  excavation  and  grading  mason^ 
work  plastering  carpenter-work  roofing  painting  and  glazing  but 
exclusive  of  plumbing  gasfitting  and  heating  and  to  furnish  all 
the  materials  of  every  kind  labor  scaffolding  and  cartage  for  the 
full  completion  of  the  said  works  such  labor  and  materials  to  be 
in  strict  accordance  with  drawings  and  specifications  made  by 
Thomas  Pinch  architect  which  said  drawings  and  specifications 
are  to  be  taken  and  deemed  a  part  of  this  contract  and  including 
all  things  which  in  the  opinion  of  the  said  architect  may  fairly  be 
inferred  from  such  drawings  and  specifications  to  be  intended 
without  being  specially  stipulated  all  the  materials  to  be  in  suffi- 
cient quantity  and  where  the  quality  is  not  otherwise  described  in 
the  specifications  to  be  of  the  best  quality  and  the  workmanship 
throughout  to  be  of  the  best  quality  and  the  whole  to  be  executed 
in  a  good  substantial  and  workmanlike  manner  subject  to  the 
directions  from  time  to  time  and  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  said 
architect  and  the  whole  to  be  completely  finished  and  delivered 
on  or  before  the  fifteenth  day  of  October  next. 

And  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  hereby  promises  and  agrees 
in  consideration  of  the  foregoing  covenants  being  strictly  kept 


262  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

and  performed  by  the  party  of  the  second  part  to  pay  to  the  said 
party  of  the  second  part  the  sum  of  Six  thousand  four  hundred 
and  ninety-seven  dollars  ($6,497)  m  four  several  payments  as 
follows : 

The  first  payment  to  be  Fifteen  Hundred  Dollars  ($1,500) 
when  the  roof  is  on  and  boarded.  The  second  payment  to  be 
Fifteen  Hundred  Dollars  ($1,500)  when  all  the  outside  work 
including  piazza,  and  porch  is  done  and  painted  one  coat  and  the 
masonwork  and  plastering  finished  and  the  sashes  in.  The  third 
payment  to  be  Fifteen  Hundred  Dollars  ($1,500)  when  the  stand- 
ing finish  is  done  and  the  upper  floors  and  stairs  completed  and 
the  second  coat  of  paint  on  the  outside.  And  the  balance  thirty- 
three  days  after  the  said  work  shall  have  been  completed  finished 
and  delivered  and  accepted  by  the  said  party  of  the  first  part 
unless  some  defect  shall  meanwhile  have  been  discovered  therein 
provided  however  that  no  payment  shall  be  made  except  on  the 
written  certificate  of  the  architect  or  some  other  person  thereto 
authorized  by  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  that  in  his  opinion  the 
work  for  which  such  payment  is  to  be  made  is  properly  done  and 
that  the  payment  is  due  such  certificate  however  not  exempting 
the  party  of  the  second  part  from  liability  to  make  good  any  work 
so  certified  if  it  be  afterwards  discovered  to  have  been  improperly 
done  or  not  in  accordance  with  the  drawings  or  specifications  and 
provided  further  that  prior  to  each  payment  by  the  party  of  the 
first  part  a  satisfactory  certificate  shall  have  been  obtained  to  the 
effect  that  the  said  building  and  estate  is  free  from  mechanics' 
liens  and  other  claims  incurred  by  the  party  of  the  second  part. 

AND  the  said  parties  hereto  hereby  further  agree  as  follows : 

1.  That  the  drawings  and  specifications  are  intended  to 
co-operate  so  that  any  works  shown  on  the  drawings  and  not 
mentioned  in  the  specifications  or  vice  versa  are  to  be  executed  by 
the  party  of  the  second  part  without  extra  charge  the  same  as  if 
they  were  both  mentioned  in  the  specifications  and  shown  on  the 
drawings. 

2.  The  said  party  of  the  first  part  or  the  said  architect  with 
the  consent  of  the  party  of  the  first  part  shall  be  at  liberty  to  order 
any  variations  from  the  drawings  or  specifications  either  in  add- 
ing thereto  or  diminishing  therefrom  or  otherwise  however  and 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  263 

such  variations  shall  not  vitiate  this  contract  but  the  difference 
in  cost  shall  be  added  to  or  deducted  from  the  contract  price  as 
the  case  may  be  by  a  fair  and  reasonable  valuation  and  the  archi- 
tect shall  have  power  to  extend  the  time  of  completion  on  account 
of  alterations  or  additions  so  ordered  such  extension  to  be  cer- 
tified by  him  to  the  party  of  the  first  part  at  the  time  when  such 
order  for  alterations  or  additions  is  given.  Orders  for  changes 
which  do  not  affect  the  cost  of  the  work  may  be  given  orally  but 
no  order  which  increases  or  diminishes  the  cost  of  the  work  or 
affects  the  time  of  completion  shall  be  valid  unless  given  in  writing. 

3.  Neither  the  whole  nor  any  portion  of  this  contract  shall  be 
assigned  or  sublet  by  the  party  of  the  second  part  without  the 
written  consent  of  the  party  of  the  first  part. 

4.  If  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  shall  fail  to  complete 
the  said  work  including  all  variations  should  such  be  made  at  or 
before  the  time  agreed  upon  with  such  extension  in  the  case  of 
extra  work  as  may  have  been  certified  by  the  architect  then  and 
in  that  case  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  shall  forfeit  and  pay 
to  the  said  party  of  the  first  part  the  sum  of  Five  Dollars  for  each 
and  every  day  that  the  said  work  shall  remain  unfinished  after 
that  time  unless  in  the  opinion  of  the  architect  such  delay  shall 
have  been  due  to  causes  which  could  not  reasonably  have  been 
foreseen  by  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  or  with  reasonable 
care  and   diligence  avoided  the  said   sums   to  be  retained  as 
liquidated  damages  out  of  any  money  that  may  be  due  or  may 
thereafter  become  due  to  the  said  party  of  the  second  part. 

5.  All  materials  shall  become  the  property  of  the  party  of 
the  first  part  as  soon  as  they  are  delivered  on  the  ground  subject 
only  to  the  right  of  the  party  of  the  second  part  to  remove  surplus 
materials  at  the  completion  of  the  building,  but  no  materials  are 
to  be  paid  for  before  they  are  set  in  place  in  the  work. 

6.  If  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  shall  become  bankrupt 
or  insolvent  or  assign  their  property  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  or 
become  otherwise  unable  themselves  to  carry  on  the  work  or  shall 
at  any  time  for  six  days  neglect  or  refuse  to  do  so  in  the  manner 
required  by  the  architect  or  shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  comply  with 
any  of  the  articles  of  this  agreement  then  the  said  party  of  the 
first  part  or  his  agent  shall  have  the  right  and  is  hereby  empowered 


264  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

to  enter  upon  and  take  possession  of  the  premises  with  the  ma- 
terials and  apparatus  thereon  after  giving  two  days*  notice  in 
writing  and  thereupon  all  claim  of  the  party  of  the  second  part 
their  executors  administrators  and  assigns  shall  cease  and  the 
said  party  of  the  first  part  or  his  agent  may  after  using  such  of 
the  materials  already  on  the  ground  as  may  be  suitable  provide 
other  materials  and  workmen  sufficient  to  finish  the  said  works 
and  the  cost  of  the  labor  and  materials  so  provided  shall  be  de- 
ducted from  the  amount  to  be  paid  for  work  and  extras  under  this 
contract  without  prejudice  to  any  other  remedies  for  breach  thereof. 
7.  The  said  party  of  the  first  part  shall  keep  the  building  and 
the  material  on  the  premises  insured  against  fire  for  the  benefit 
of  himself  or  any  mortgagee  and  of  any  contractor  who  shall  re- 
quest such  insurance  in  writing  and  in  case  of  fire  the  insurance 
money  shall  be  divided  between  the  party  of  the  first  part  and  any 
mortgagee  and  those  contractors  for  whose  benefit  the  insurance 
was  taken  out  as  their  interests  may  appear  and  the  parties  here- 
to shall  respectively  proceed  to  the  completion  of  this  contract. 
The  said  party  of  the  second  part  shall  be  solely  responsible  for  all 
loss  failure  or  damage  from  whatever  cause  to  the  said  works 
loss  by  fire  alone  excepted  until  the  whole  is  delivered  and  ac- 
cepted by  the  party  of  the  first  part  and  shall  give  all  necessary 
assistance  to  the  other  workmen  employed  in  the  building  and 
shall  be  solely  responsible  for  all  delay  or  damage  caused  to  their 
work  or  materials  or  to  neighboring  property  or  to  the  persons  or 
property  of  the  public  by  their  workmen  or  through  any  of  their 
operations. 

AND  for  the  faithful  performance  of  each  and  every  the 
articles  and  agreements  hereinbefore  contained  the  said  parties 
hereto  do  hereby  bind  themselves  their  heirs  executors  adminis- 
trators and  assigns  each  to  the  other  in  the  penal  sum  of  Three 
Thousand  Dollars  ($3,000)  firmly  by  these  presents. 

IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF  the  said  parties  hereto  have  hereunto 
set  their  hands  and  seals  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 


IN    PRESENCE   OF 

Thomas  Pinch 
to  all. 


James  Johnson 
Thomas  Smith 
Henry  Smith 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  A  STEEL-FRAME 
BUILDING. 

CHAPTER   V. 

The  third  division  of  our  subject  will  treat  of  a  more  compli- 
cated structure  than  either  of  the  preceding,  and  will  lead  us  to 
the  consideration  of  new  materials,  as  well  as  new  ways  of  put- 
ting them  together.  Our  problem  is  to  construct  a  fireproof 
office-building,  eleven  stories  high,  on  land  so  valuable  that  it  is 
important  to  gain  all  the  space  possible  available  for  renting,  by 
reducing  the  thickness  of  the  walls  to  the  minimum  consistent 
with  good  construction.  Under  the  regulations  of  the  city  in 
which  our  building  is  situated,  the  walls,  if  of  brickwork,  must 
be  thirty-two  inches  thick  to  the  top  of  the  first  floor,  and  twenty- 
eight  inches  thick  from  this  point  to  the  upper  floor.  By  making 
them  with  a  steel  skeleton,  using  masonry  simply  as  protection, 
we  can  have  them  twelve  inches  thick,  the  vertical  members  mak- 
ing a  projection  of  four  inches  at  intervals  of  about  eight  feet. 
Our  building  is  twenty-five  feet  wide,  and  one  hundred  feet  deep, 
with  independent  walls  all  around,  and  the  saving  of  floor  space 
secured  by  the  skeleton  construction  is  thus  about  three  hundred 
square  feet  on  each  story,  or  thirty-six  hundred  square  feet  in  all, 
counting  the  basement  as  a  story.  The  owners  of  the  building 
hope  to  get  an  annual  rent  of  ten  dollars  per  square  foot  of  floor 
space  for  the  first  story  and  basement,  which  will  probably  be  let 
together  to  a  bank  or  trust  company,  and  an  average  of  a  dollar 
and  a  half  per  square  foot  for  the  ten  floors  above.  The  saving 
in  space  made  by  using  the  skeleton  construction  will  therefore 
give  them  three  thousand  dollars  a  year  more  for  the  first  story 
and  basement  than  they  could  get  if  solid  brick  walls  were  used, 
and  an  average  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  for  each  of  the 

(265) 


266  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

ten  stories  above  the  first,  making  a  total  of  seven  thousand  five 
hundred  dollars  a  year  gained  in  income,  with  little  or  no  addition 
to  the  investment,  as  the  saving  in  the  brickwork  required  for  the 
thick  walls  about  offsets  the  cost  of  the  steel  skeleton  which  takes 
its  place.  Such  an  advantage  cannot  be  neglected;  and  our  in- 
structions are,  therefore,  to  use  the  steel-frame  construction,  tak- 
ing as  much  care  as  possible  to  protect  the  metal  against  corrosion. 
Our  first  duty  is  to  study  all  the  circumstances  of  situation, 
soil  and  surroundings  of  the  lot  to  be  built  upon,  so  that  the 
building  may  not  only  be  securely  constructed,  but 
may  rent  advantageously  when  completed.  The 
location  is  on  the  corner  of  one  of  the  principal  busi- 
ness streets  of  the  city,  which  we  will  call  Broadway,  and  an- 
other, which  we  may  call  Tenth  Street,  the  narrow  front  being  on 
Broadway.  There  would  be  some  economy  in  planning  in  mak- 
ing the  principal  entrance  on  Tenth  Street;  but,  as  this  is  a  sec- 
ondary street,  little  known  except  locally,  our  clients  think  that, 
even  at  some  sacrifice,  the  main  entrance  should  be  made  from 
Broadway.  Parallel  with  Broadway,  and  two  hundred  feet  dis- 
tant from  it,  is  an  inferior  street,  known  as  Regent  Street,  the 
lots  fronting  on  Broadway,  and  those  fronting  on  Regent  Street, 
meeting  in  the  middle  of  the  space,  with  no  intermediate  passage 
or  alley.  Our  clients  have  secured  a  long  option  on  the  Regent 
Street  property  immediately  behind  the  lot  on  which  we  are  to 
build,  and  they  request  us  to  provide  for  the  possibility  that,  if 
the  new  building  should  rent  advantageously,  an  addition  to  it 
may  be  built  on  the  Regent  Street  lot.  This  would  probably  be 
a  profitable  operation,  as  the  offices  in  the  addition,  being  reached 
from  the  Broadway  entrance,  and  arranged  continuously  with 
those  in  the  original  building,  would  be  practically  Broadway  of- 
fices, and,  commanding  Broadway  rents,  would  bring  in  a  large 
percentage  on  the  cost  of  what  would  otherwise  be  a  rather  un- 
attractive investment ;  so  that  we  will  keep  this  prospect  carefully 
in  mind  in  our  plan. 

Both  the  Broadway  and  the  Regent  Street  lots  are  occupied 
by  old  buildings,  and  we  examine  both  for  evidences  of  party- 
wall  agreements,  or  other  incumbrances  which  would  affect  our 
plan.  A  party-wall  agreement  would  be  a  matter  either  of  record 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  267 

or  of  statute,  and  could  be  looked  up  in  the  proper  public  records, 
but  it  will  save  time  to  see  what  information  in  regard  to  it  can 
be  obtained  on  the  spot.  The  adjoining  building  on  Broadway 
is  a  modern  store,  much  higher  than  that  on  our  lot,  and  we  ob- 
serve that  the  terra-cotta  facing  of  the  front  extends  completely 
over  the  front  of  the  side  wall  next  adjoining  our  lot.  This  indi- 
cates that  the  side  wall  in  question  is  not  a  party  wall,  but  stands 
entirely  on  the  land  of  the  adjoining  owner.  If  the  part  w  n 
terra-cotta  facing  had  covered  only  one-half  of  the 
front  of  the  side  wall,  leaving  a  surface  of  rough  brick,  recessed 
four  inches  from  the  front  line  of  the  building,  to  be  subsequently 
covered  by  the  front  of  the  adjoining  building,  this  would  indi- 
cate that  the  wall  was  a  party  wall,  the  usual  practice  in  such 
cases  being  for  each  owner  to  terminate  his  front  at  the  party 
line.  We  are  confirmed  in  the  conclusion  that  the  wall  is  inde- 
pendent by  measuring  the  distance  from  the  corner  of  Tenth 
Street  to  the  division  line  between  the  two  fronts,  which  we  find 
to  be  just  twenty-five  feet. 

We  must  next  examine  the  wall  itself,  to  see  whether  the 
upper  portion  leans  over  our  client's  land,  for,  if  so,  we  may  be 
compelled  to  make  our  building  narrower,  irr  order  not  to  inter- 
fere with  the  overhang,  the  law  holding  that  where  the  wall  of  an 
innocent  owner,  by  settlement  or  decay,  overhangs  the  land  of 
another,  and  cannot  safely  be  cut  away  to  allow  a 
new  wall  to  be  built  up  against  it  close  to  the  dividing 
line,  and  is  not  itself  in  such  dangerous  condition  that 
it  can  be  condemned  by  the  public  authority,  the  owner  of  the 
adjoining  estate,  if  he  builds  a  new  wall,  must  set  it  back  from  his 
line,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  his  neighbor's  overhanging  wall. 
Fortunately,  no  such  overhang  appears  in  the  wall  of  the  adjoin- 
ing Broadway  building,  and  the  division  between  our  lot  and  the 
Regent  Street  property  is  only  a  wooden  fence ;  so  that  we  need 
have  no  anxiety  on  this  point.  The  matter  of  party-wall  agree- 
ments is,  however,  too  important  to  be  settled  by  the  mere  obser- 
vation of  the  conditions  on  the  spot,  as  the  existence  of  such  an 
agreement,  in  the  ordinary  form,  would  not  only  permit,  but  re- 
quire us  to  carry  our  foundation  far  under  the  adjoining  prop- 
erty, and  to  make  other  provision  for  the  common  use  of  the  wall. 


268 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


We  therefore  apply  to  our  clients'  conveyancer,  who  assures  us 
that  no  such  agreement  exists,  nor  does  any  statute  require  party 
walls  to  be  built ;  so  that  we  must  keep  all  our  construction  on  our 
own  side  of  the  property  line,  unless  some  special  arrangement 
should  be  agreed  upon,  which,  he  tells  us,  is  unlikely,  as  the  ad- 
joining owner  does  not  view  with  favor  the  erection  of  the  new 
building.  The  lawyer  adds,  significantly,  that  we  will  do  well 
not  to  permit  the  slightest  encroachment  on  the  adjoining  prop- 
erty, the  owner  of  which  will  probably  be  on  the  watch,  and  will 
seize  any  opportunity  for  delaying  or  obstructing  our  work. 

We  know  from  experience  that  the  subsoil  in  this  locality  is 
a  compact  clay,  of  great  depth,  intersected  by  veins  of  sand,  so 
that  the  matter  of  foundations  will  give  us  no  serious  trouble, 
although  we  intend  to  put  a  sub-cellar  under  the  basement,  to  ac- 
commodate boilers,  coal  storage  and  machinery.  It  is,  however, 
necessary  to  ascertain  whether  the  sub-cellar  can  be 
drained  into  the  sewer :  so  we  make  inquiries  at  the 
city  Sewer  Department,  and  at  the  Street  Department,  to  find  the 
curbstone  grade  at  the  corner  of  Broadway  and  Tenth  Street,  and 
the  depth  of  the  sewer  below  it.  Fortunately,  the  sewer  here 
proves  to  be  very  low,  some  twenty-five  feet  below  the  curbstone 
grade  at  the  corner ;  so  that  the  blow-off  tank  from  the  boiler,  and 
the  plumbing  fixtures  in  the  sub-basement,  will  drain  directly  into 
it  without  pumping. 

We  are  now  ready  to  make  our  preliminary  plan  (Fig.  178), 
beginning  with  the  second  story.     Both  to  economize 
our  costly  land,  and  to  facilitate  subsequent  extension 
over  the  Regent  Street  lot,  we  carry  our  building  back  to  the  rear 


Sewer 


Plan 


Fig.  178 

line  of  our  land,  one  hundred  feet  from  Broadway.  This  will 
give  us  six  offices,  each  about  sixteen  feet  long,  on  the  Tenth 
Street  side  of  the  building,  and  two  small  ones,  one  at  each  end. 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  269 

The  small  office  on  Broadway  will  get  light  from  the  street,  but 
the  corresponding  one  at  the  other  end  would  get  no  outside  light 
if  the  Regent  Street  lot  should  be  built  upon  up  to  the  boundary 
line,  so  we  will  arrange  to  give  it  light  and  air  from  a  court, 
which  will  also  serve  to  light  the  toilet-room,  and  the  hallway; 
and  the  elevators,  stairs  and  vault  will  find  room  on  the  same  side 
of  the  hall.  As  the  elevators  are  required  by  law  to  have  a  sky- 
light over  them,  of  the  full  size  of  both  elevators,  this  end  of  the 
hallway  will  be  tolerably  well  lighted,  and  the  other  end  will  re- 
ceive both  light  and  air  in  abundance  from  the  court;  while  the 
stairs  will  be  sufficiently  illuminated,  partly  by  the  skylight  over 
them,  and  partly  by  the  general  light  of  the  hallway.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  a  great  deal  of  light  will  come  into  the  hallway  from 
the  glass  panels  and  transom-lights  of  the  office  doors. 

Allowing  one  foot  for  each  of  the  side  walls  we  shall  have 
twenty-three  feet  in  clear  width  between  them.  Nine  feet  will 
give  room  for  the  elevators,  hallway  and  partition,  leaving  four- 
teen feet  width  for  the  offices.  Fourteen  by  sixteen  is  not  a  very 
large  room,  but  it  is  quite  equal  to  the  average  of  Broadway 
offices,  and  can  be  divided,  for  the  use  of  lawyers,  into  two  offices, 
each  eight  feet  wide,  with  a  small  entrance  lobby,  or  can  be  length- 
ened as  required  by  shifting  the  partitions;  so  that  our  clients 
approve  these  dimensions.  The  small  offices  at  each  end  will  be 
nine  by  twelve  feet,  which  will  suit  some  tenants,  or  they  can  be 
opened  into  the  adjoining  office.  In  the  case  of  the  small  office 
nearest  Regent  Street,  while  it  will  be  sacrificed  if  connection  is 
made  with  a  new  building  on  the  Regent  street  lot,  a  portion  of  it 
can  be  used  for  the  additional  elevators  or  toilet  rooms  which  will 
then  be  required.  As  none  of  the  partitions  form  part  of  the 
structure,  each  floor  being  framed  as  an  unbroken  area,  changes 
of  this  sort  can  be  made  without  difficulty. 

So  far  as  the  offices  above  the  first  story  are  concerned,  our 
scheme  is  now  tolerably  complete ;  but  we  have  reason 
to  believe  that  the  inspectors  of  the  city  Building 
Department  will  object  to  the  plan  in  its  present  state,  as  not  pro- 
viding sufficient  means  of  escape  for  tenants  in  case  of  fire.     Al- 
though the  building  is  to  be  of  fireproof  construction,  and  the 
stairway  is  nearly  central,  the  tendency  of  "inspectors  of  egress" 


270 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


is  to  argue  that  the  smoke  from  burning  papers  or  furniture  may 
fill  a  staircase  so  as  to  render  it  impassable,  and  that  every  tenant 
ought  to  have  a  choice  of  two  routes  for  reaching  a  place  of  safe- 
ty. If  the  Regent  Street  building  should  be  added,  later,  there 


mU 


Fig.  179 

would  be  a  staircase  in  it,  which  would  fulfil  the  desired  end,  of 
affording  two  staircases,  one  near  each  end  of  a  long  corridor, 
both  accessible  to  all  the  tenants,  and  both  leading  to  the  street. 
For  the  purposes  of  the  Broadway  building,  only,  however,  with 
but  eight  offices  on  a  floor,  it  is  unnecessary  to  incur  the  expense 
of  an  extra  marble  staircase,  and  we  will  arrange  for  an  ordinary 
fire-escape  in  the  court,  leading  to  the  basement.  This  will  ob- 
struct some  of  t«he  light  from  the  court,  but  it  satisfies  the  inspec- 
tor and  can  be  removed  when  more  permanent  provision  is  made. 
The  first  story,  which  is  intended  for  a  banking-room,  is  to 
be  left  entirely  open,  except  that  a  toilet-room  and  directors'  room 
are  divided  off  in  the  rear  (Fig.  179)  ;  and  a  public  hallway  is 
provided  at  the  Broadway  entrance,  including  the  stairs  and  ele- 
vators, and  the  entrance  to  the  basement.  The  basement  (Fig. 


Fig.  180 

180),  which  will  probably  contain  a  broker's  office,  with  a  large 
vault,  and  vaults  and  clerks'  rooms  for  the  bank  above,  we  are 
instructed  to  leave  undivided  at  present,  so  that  it  can  be  fitted  up 
later  to  suit  tenants.  We  must,  however,  provide  a  small  jani- 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


2/1 


tor's  office,  which  we  can  put  under  the  sidewalk,  where  it  will  be 
well  lighted  by  the  sidewalk  lights  overhead.  Both  on  Broad- 
way and  Tenth  Street  the  basement  will  extend  out  under  the 
sidewalk,  considerably  increasing  its  area,  and  improving  its 
illumination,  by  the  sidewalk  lights  which  cover  the  additional 
space.  On  Tenth  Street,  toward  Regent  Street,  are  the  coal- 
holes, the  small  trap  door  and  ladder  by  which  the  engineer  and 
fireman  reach  the  sub-basement,  and  the  large  trap-doors,  through 
which  ashes  are  to  be  brought  up,  a  new  boiler  put  in,  and  the  old 
one  taken  out,  in  case  of  need,  from  the  boiler-room  in  the  sub- 
basement.  The  portion  of  the  sub-basement  nearest  Broadway 
is  occupied  by  the  engines,  pumps,  dynamos  and  other  machinery 


Structure 


Fig.  181 

(Fig.  181).  The  courtyard  is  continued  down  to  the  sub-base- 
ment, to  give  light  and  air,  and  a  portion  of  the  sidewalk  light  on 
Broadway  also  illuminates  the  sub-basement. 

The  plans  being  thus  tentatively  laid  out,  we  must  take  up  the 
structural  view  of  the  problem,  which  is  materially 
complicated  by  the  objection  of  the  adjoining  owner 
to  any  encroachment  on  his  property.  As  twenty-three  feet  is 
not  a  long  span  for  steel  beams,  the  natural  construction 
would  be  to  set  up  a  row  of  columns  on  the  Tenth  Street  side,  and 
a  parallel  row  on  the  property  line  opposite,  spreading  the  foot- 
ings sufficiently  to  support  them,  and  framing  the  beams  and 
girders  between  them.  We  propose  to  make  our  footings  of 
concrete,  and  on  Tenth  Street,  by  carrying  them  out  under  the 
sidewalk,  we  can  easily  get  the  necessary  spread ;  but,  as  we  can- 
not carry  the  footings  beyond  the  property  line  on  the  other  side, 
the  columns  would  have  to  stand  on  the  very  edge  of  the  concrete, 
which  would  be  unsafe,  as  the  corner  of  the  sheet  of  concrete 
might  break  off.  We  must,  therefore,  devise  some  way  for  set- 


272 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


Cantilevers 


ting  the  columns  back  from  the  edge  of  the  concrete,  at  the  same 
time  that  they  must  support  a  wall  on  the  property  line. 

This  can  be  done  by  means  of  cantilevers,  or  projecting 
beams,  which  we  will  arrange  thus  (Figs.  182,  183).  In  the 
line  which  coincides  with  that  of  the  walls  and  parti- 
tions separating  the  hallway  from  the  small  rooms 
and  court,  and  with  the  headers  of  the  staircase  and  elevator 

framing,  we  will  set  up  a  row 
of  long  columns,   which  need 
not  come  opposite  those  in  the 
Fig.  182  Tenth  Street  wall.     These  col- 

umns will  carry  a  girder  in  every  story,  to  which  the  floor  beams 
extending  across  from  the  Tenth  Street  girders  will  be  framed. 
In  the  sub-basement,  at  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7  and  8,  will  be  set  short 
columns,  two  feet  back  from  the  edge  of  the  concrete ;  and  on  the 
heads  of  these  will  rest  the  cantilevers,  of  the  shape  shown,  framed 
to  the  side  of  the  long  columns  at  one  end,  and  projecting  some- 
what less  than  two  feet  into  space,  beyond  the  short  columns.  The 
footings  of  the  short  columns  will  be  far  enough  in  from  the  edge 
of  the  concrete  to  make  sure  that  the  edge  will  not  be  pushed  off, 
and  we  will  set  long  columns  on  the  outer  ends  of  the  cantilevers, 
with  girders  in  each  story,  which  will  support  the  walls  at  the 
property  line.  Below  the  cantilevers,  which  come  at  the  level  of 
the  sub-basement  ceiling,  there 
will  be  a  space  not  thus  pro- 
vided for,  which  can,  how- 
ever, be  safely  filled  by  a  wall 
built  on  the  edge  of  the  con- 
crete extending  to  the  under- 
side of  the  first  girder.  Such 
a  wall  will  not  load  the  edge 
of  the  concrete  seriously  and, 
as  it  is  only  one  story  high,  its 
settlement,  if  built  in  cement, 
will  not  be  sufficient  to  draw  Fig.  183 

it  appreciably  away  from  the  girder  above. 

The  necessary  thickness  of  the  concrete  footing  is  next  to  be 
determined.     Although  there  would  be  a  saving  of  concrete  in 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


273 


giving  each  column  an  independent  foundation,  reinforced  with 
iron  or  not,  as  the  case  might  require,  it  is  more  than  likely  that 
some  of  the  footings  would  come  over  sand  veins,  and 
would  have  to  be  specially  treated,  to  avoid  unequal  Foundation 
settlement,  while,  if  sandy  or  soft  spots  should  occur 
under  the  interior  of  the  building,  the  material  in  them  would  be 
forced  up  by  the  pressure  on  the  soil  around  them,  causing  settle- 
ments in  the  walls,  and  involving,  perhaps,  troublesome  and  ex- 
pensive operations  to  prevent  the  sub-basement  floor  from  rising. 
,We  will,  therefore,  adopt  the  simpler,  quicker  and  surer  method 
of  covering  the  whole  area  of  the  foundation  with  a  slab  of  con- 
crete of  uniform  thickness,  which  will  not  only  give  sufficient  foot- 
ing for  the  columns,  but  will  resist  any  tendency  of  the  sub-base- 
ment floor  to  rise,  and  will  thus  insure  a  solid  and  permanent  foun- 
dation for  the  boilers,  engines  and  machinery  which  will  rest  upon 
it.  The  thickness  of  this  concrete  slab  is  determined  partly  by  the 
spread  which  the  footings  require,  and  partly  by  the  possibility 
that  such  a  slab,  loaded  by  a  row  of  columns  on  each  edge,  may,  if 
of  insufficient  thickness,  be  broken  through  the  middle  by  the  up- 
ward reaction  of  the  comparatively  uncompressed  subsoil  in  the 
middle.  The  amount  of  this  reaction  would  depend  upon  the  na- 
ture of  the  soil ;  but,  in  a  clayey  ground  like  that  with  which  we 
have  to  deal,  a  slab  of  concrete,  not  reinforced  with  iron,  may  be 
considered  safe  if  its  thickness  is  equal  to  one-fifth  of  the  distance 
between  the  rows  of  columns  which  it  supports.  As  the  point  of 
application  of  the  pressure  of  the  double  row  of  columns  along 
the  interior  lines  is  rather  indeterminate,  and  the  cantilevers  may 


[Ml 

( 

i 

i 

T  |     • 
i  i     ; 

1 

[ 

1 

i  ] 

i    II   i 

1 

i    i    | 

•| 

:    ;    t 
•    •    • 

* 

;    * 

» 

J    ';    i 

:   t    ; 

J     ; 

; 

1 

. 

•   '  -  :    >  • 

!_ 

.  ;    :.! 

; 

Fig.  184 

impose  a  certain  extra  pressure  on  the  short  columns  under  them, 
we  will  take  the  safe  side,  and  make  our  concrete  slab  uniformly 
five  feet  thick. 

Having  decided  this  point,  our  drawings  may  be  completed  at 
once.  The  beam  plan  of  each  floor  will  be  like  Fig.  184.  We 

18 


274  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

will  space  the  columns  on  Tenth  Street  about  eight  feet  apart. 
This  will  give  us  two  bays,  each  with  a  large  window,  in  each 
office  above  the  first  story.  The  columns  opposite  these  will  be 
spaced  at  different  intervals,  according  to  the  exigencies  of  the 
plan,  and  there  will  be  one  intermediate  column  in  front  and  rear. 
All  the  columns  will  be  of  the  usual  Z-bar  pattern,  the  dimensions 
of  the  posts  being  determined  by  the  load  which  will  come  on 
each.  As  the  loads  vary  in  every  story,  and  almost  for  each  col- 
umn, it  would  take  to  much  space  to  repeat  the  calculations  here, 
but  they  are  very  easily  made,  by  measuring  the  length  of  girder 
that  each  column  supports,  the  number  of  square  feet  of  flooring 
carried  by  the  girder,  with  the  weight  of  brickwork  sustained  by 
the  girder  and  the  column;  remembering  that  a  cubic  foot  of 
brickwork  weighs  about  112  pounds,  and  a  square  foot  of  ordi- 
nary fireproof  flooring,  with  porous  terra-cotta  flat  arches,  plas- 
tered underneath,  and  levelled  up  above  with  cinder  concrete, 
about  65  pounds ;  or,  including  the  "live  load"  of 
one  hundred  pounds  per  square  foot  required  by 
law,  and  an  allowance  for  the  weight  of  the  iron, 
about  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  pounds  per 
square  foot;  and  remembering  also  that  every 
column,  besides  its  own  floor  loads,  carries  the 
accumulated  load  on  the  columns  above  it.  All 
the  columns  will  stand  on  the  concrete  footing, 
with  standard  cast-iron  bases ;  and  all,  except  the 
short  columns  under  the  cantilevers,  will  extend 
through  two  stories,  the  connections  being  made 
about  two  feet  above  the  floor.  The  roof  is 
framed  like  a  floor,  except  that  the  load  may  be 
taken  at  125  pounds  per  square  foot,  instead  of 
175,  and  the  beams  will  be  set  with  a  pitch  to 
carry  off  the  water,  the  ceiling  of  the  rooms  below 
being  furred  down  to  a  level  with  hangers  and 
T-irons,  which  carry  iron  lath  for  plastering. 
Fig.  185  The  main  girders  will  be  made  with  plates  and 

angles,  and  the  floors  will  be  laid  with  I-beams  of  various  depths 
and  weights.  The  tables  in  the  iron-mill  books  will  give  us  suit- 
able dimensions  for  all  these,  and  the  standard  column  and  beam 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


275 


connections  may  with  advantage  and  economy  be  used  wherever 
they  are  applicable.  There  are,  however,  certain  matters  to  be 
considered  about  which  the  mill-books  will  not  give  us  much  in- 
formation ;  the  most  important  of  these,  perhaps,  being  the  brac- 
ing. We  propose  to  specify  that  all  the  joints  shall  be  riveted,  a 
riveted  joint  being  far  more  rigid  than  a  bolted  one ;  but  even  the 
stiffness  of  riveted  joints  may  not  prevent  the  building  from  being 
moved  slightly  out  of  the  vertical  by  violent  winds,  or  by  careless- 
ness in  construction  (Fig.  185).  We  can,  however,  prevent  any 
such  movement  by  diagonal  braces  across  the  angles,  which  will 
effectually  prevent  distortion.  In  the  outside  walls  "gussets,"  or 
triangular  iron  plates,  secured  by  angle-irons  to  the  columns  and 


Fig.  186 

girders  (Fig.  186),  will  give  effectual  bracing  in  that  direction, 
but  there  is  still  a  possibility  that  in  so  high  and  narrow  a  build- 
ing, the  two  long  walls  may  lean  over  together.  The  connection 
between  the  framing  of  the  two  long  walls  is  formed  only  with 
beams,  which  do  not  give  a  very  good  attachment  for  a  gusset, 
and,  although  gussets  could  be  fastened  to  them,  they  would  show 
in  the  rooms;  or,  if  concealed  in  the  partitions,  they  might  be 
exposed  on  removing  a  partition  to  enlarge  an  office.  We  will, 
therefore,  arrange  for  gussets  only  between  the  columns  and  the 
roof-beams,  on  the  Tenth  Street  side,  where  they  can  be  hidden  in 
the  roof-space,  and  will  look  for  an  opportunity  to  introduce, 
lower  down  in  the  building,  the  much  more  efficient  form  of 
bracing  known  as  portal  framing.  This  consists  of  an  arch,  ex- 
tending across  the  space  between  two  rows  of  columns,  the  angles 


276  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

of  which  are  filled  in  with  plates,  the  whole  being  riveted  together 
(Fig.  187),  and  to  the  columns.  A  portal  of  this  sort  is  hardly 
admissible  in  any  of  the  upper  offices,  but  two  ornamental  arches 


could  be  thrown  across  the  middle  of  the  banking-room  on  the 
first  story  (Fig.  188)  with  very  good  decorative  effect,  and  these 
would  afford  an  opportunity  for  two  strong  portals  in  the  middle 
of  the  building,  where  they  would  be  most  needed.  As  the  long 
interior  wall  is  very  much  stiffened  by  the  breaks  in  it,  and  by  the 
cross  walls  of  the  vault,  and  the  Tenth  Street  wall,  being  secured 
to  it  by  the  beams,  cannot  lean  unless  both  go  together,  two  por- 
tals in  the  middle  of  the  building,  at  the  height  of  the  first  story 
ceiling,  will  be  ample  to  secure  the  verticality  of  the  structure. 


Fig.  188 

We  have  now  to  consider  how  the  brick  and  terra-cotta  or 
stone  casing,  which  must  cover  all  the  external  walls,  is  to  be  se- 
cured to  the  steel  skeleton.  The  usual  method  of  accomplishing 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


277 


this  result  is  to  provide  angle  irons,  which  are  riveted  or  bolted  on 
(Fig.  189)  the  wall  girders  in  each  story,  and  often  to  the  col- 


Fig.  189 


T 


umns  between  the  girders,  forming  shelves,  which  support  the 
exterior  masonry  of  that  story.  As  the  shelves  necessarily  come 
at  some  little  distance  above  the  windows,  the  window  opening 
must  be  covered  by  an  arch  or  lintel,  extending  through  the  wall, 
on  which  rests  the  small  portion  of  masonry  between  the  arch  and 
the  shelf  or  floor-beams  above,  the  inside  masonry  above  the  floor 
being  supported  by  the  beams  and  terra-cotta  arches.  As  the 
piers  of  masonry  enclosing  the  columns  are  much  heavier  than 
the  portions  under  the  windows  in  the  spaces  between  the  columns, 
it  is  common,  particularly  where  stone  casings  are  used,  to  put 
several  shelves  on  the  columns  in  the  height  of  each  story.  This 
construction  will  answer  our  purpose  very  well,  if  the  masonry  is 
thoroughly  bonded  around  the  columns,  and  above  and  below  the 
girders;  so  we  make  the  shelves,  which  are  of  four-inch  angle- 
iron,  on  the  elevation,  taking  care  to  space  them  so  that  they  will 
come  in  the  joints  of  the  brickwork  and  terra-cotta  of  the  masonry 
casing.  In  the  lower  story,  where  the  openings  on  the  street  side 
are  very  wide,  they  are  covered  by  an  ornamental  iron  lintel,  con- 
sisting of  a  thin  shell  of  cast  iron,  fastened  to  the  girder,  which  is 
to  be  protected  by  covering  with  a  thick  coat  of  plastering,  on 
metal  lath,  before  the  ornamental  shell  is  put  on.  In  order  to 
obtain  all  the  light  possible,  the  exterior  columns  in  the  basement 
and  sub-basement  will  be  wrapped  with  metal  lath  and  plastered 
in  the  same  way,  simply  brought  to  a  smooth  finish. 

We  have  now  to  consider  more  closely  the  lighting  of  the  base- 


278  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

ment  and  sub-basement,  and  the  construction  of  the  portions  of 
them  extending  out  under  the  sidewalk.  The  important  factor 
in  this  problem  is  the  pressure  of  the  earth  outside,  which  must 
be  effectually  resisted,  to  prevent  settlements  in  the 
Sidewalk"  street  and  sidewalk.  The  ordinary  rule  for  a  retain- 
ing wall  of  masonry  against  a  street  is  that  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wall  at  the  bottom  shall  be  one-third  its  depth  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground  to  be  supported.  As  the  floor  of  our 
sub-basement  is  eighteen  feet  below  the  street,  this  would  give  us 
a  retaining  wall  of  masonry  six  feet  thick  at  the  bottom,  sloping, 
or  "battering,"  thence  to  the  top.  The  municipal  regulations  will 
not  allow  us  to  set  any  part  of  the  retaining  wall  outside  the  curb, 
and  the  sidewalk  on  Tenth  Street  is  only  eight  feet  wide ;  so  that 
we  shall  only  have  two  feet  of  floor-space  in  the  sub-basement  out- 
side of  our  columns.  We  are  allowed  by  the  regulations,  hoW- 
ever,  to  batter  the  retaining  wall  to  a  thickness  of  two  feet  at  the 
top,  so  in  the  basement,  where  space  is  most  valuable,  we  shall 
have  between  five  and  six  feet  outside  the  columns.  We  could 
gain  a  little  space  in  the  basement,  and  much  more  in  the  sub- 
basement,  by  making  the  retaining  wall  with  steel  beams,  set  ver- 
tically opposite  the  main  columns,  connected  at  the  top  with  the 
latter  by  girders  just  below  the  sidewalk,  and  buried  at  the  foot  in 

the  concrete  foundation 

of    the    building,  and 

'.&!&&£;&&£*& ^^^^firafe^-Kf^v;     forming"  concrete  arches 

'v$l'5§V*>?  *"  *^f^0"0^  ^^"***<^f. ».  '•.  *"•  <•'//)•"'*  • 

Fig.  190  ^yi^      between,    strengthened 

with    embedded    metal 

lath  (Fig.  190).  On  calculating  approximately  the  pressure, 
however,  we  find  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  use  eighteen-inch 
vertical  beams,  which  must  be  cased  with  concrete,  so  that  the 
saving  of  clear  space  outside  the  columns  in  the  basement  would 
not  be  very  great ;  and  the  city  officials  make  a  discouraging  reply 
to  our  inquiry  whether  such  a  construction  would  meet  their  ap- 
proved ;  so  we  conclude  to  adopt  the  ordinary  method,  and  make 
our  beam  plan  for  the  sidewalk  (Fig.  171)  accordingly.  As  we 
wish  to  get  all  the  light  possible  in  the  basement,  we  will  provide 
for  sidewalk  lights  everywhere,  from  the  building  to  the  inner  face 
of  the  retaining  wall ;  and,  as  this  will  give  us  a  very  convenient 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  279 

and  well-lighted  space  for  desks,  we  will  use  sidewalk  lights  set 
in  reinforced  concrete,  which  give  less  trouble  from  the  dripping 
of  condensed  moisture  than  iron  lights ;  and  will  form  the  rest  of 
the  sidewalk,  including  the  curb,  of  concrete.  In  order  to  save 
headroom  in  the  basement,  and  allow  ventilation  over  the  side- 


!  1    i   T 


Fig.  191 

walk,  we  will  make  the  girders  which  carry  the  inner  ends  of  the 
sidewalk  beams  of  two  beams,  placed  side  by  side,  and  bolted 
together,  with  proper  separators,  instead  of  a  single  deep  beam. 

The  entrances  to  the  sub-basement  must  not  be  forgotten. 
The  distance  from  the  building  to  the  inside  of  the  retaining  wall 
on  Tenth  Street  is  only  six  feet  at  the  top ;  and,  as  we  need  a 
space  at  least  five  feet  square  for  lowering  a  boiler  of  proper  size 
into  the  sub-basement,  we  must  find  some  way  of  avoiding  the 
thickening  of  the  wall  at  the  foot.  This  can  be  done  by  building 
two  heavy  cross-walls,  as  shown  on  the  basement  and  sub-base- 
ment plan,  one  on  each  side  of  the  boiler  opening,  which  will  serve 
as  buttresses;  and  the  retaining  wall  between  them  can  then  be 
safely  reduced  to  a  thickness  of  three  feet  at  the  bottom.  As  we 
must  provide  for  getting  out  ashes,  as  well  as  for  getting  in  new 
boilers  and  machinery,  the  most  convenient  arrangement  will  be 
to  set  a  "sidewalk  elevator"  in  the  space  thus  inclosed,  using  one 
of  the  "direct  plunger"  type,  lifted  by  a  piston,  operated  by  water- 
pressure,  and  moving  in  a  cylinder  sunk  in  the  ground  below  it. 
By  opening  the  trap-doors  in  the  Tenth  Street  sidewalk  at  night, 
with  a  suitable  guard,  the  ash-barrels  can  thus  be  brought  out  and 
delivered  to  the  city  teams.  The  engineer's  ladder  will  require 
only  a  manhole  and  small  trap  door;  and  the  coal-bins  can  be 
supplied  through  an  iron  pipe,  connected  with  the  coal-hole  cover 
near  the  edge  of  the  sidewalk. 

We  have  now  to  consider  more  closely  some  of  the  details  of 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

the  superstructure.     For  the  floors  and  roof  we  have  decided  to 
use  porous  terra-cotta  arch-blocks,  of  the  "end  section"  type, 

rather  than  concrete  arching,  which,  while  good,  and 
Floor  Arches    ,  u-^i  i  /  •    . 

cheap,  would  introduce  a  large  amount  of  water  into 

the  construction,  and  possibly  retard  its  drying-out,  which  is  an 
important  consideration  where  every  hour's  delay  in  completion 
involves  a  loss  in  rents.  As  the  terra-cotta  blocks  exert  an  appre- 
ciable thrust,  the  beams  must  be  tied  by  rods 
(Fig.  192) ,  about  six  feet  apart,  and  the  flanges  of 
the  beams  must  be  punched  for  them. 

The  terra-cotta  arch-blocks  are  only  eight 
inches  high,  and  they  hang  one  inch  below  the 
underside  of  the  beams,  so  that  a  projection  on 
them,  made  for  the  purpose,  may  enclose  and  pro- 
tect the  lower  flange  of  the  beam.  There  is  thus 


Fig.  192  a  considerable  space  between  the  top  of  the  arch- 
ing and  the  top  of  the  beam,  which  the  law  requires  to  be  filled  with 
concrete,  a  cheap  cinder  concrete  being  generally  employed.  Our 
halls  and  toilet  rooms,  as  well  as  the  vaults,  and  the  banking  rooms 
in  first  story  and  basement,  will  have  floors  of  marble  tiling,  laid 
on  the  cinder  concrete,  but  the  other  rooms  are  to  have  wood 
floors,  for  which  suitable  preparation  must  be  made.  The  usual 
mode  of  preparing  for  wood  floors  over  fireproof  construction  is  to 
bury  sleepers  of  dovetail  section,  spaced  about  sixteen  inches  from 
centres,  in  the  cinder  concrete.  The  upper  surface  of  the  sleepers 
is  flush  with  that  of  the  concrete,  and  the  dovetail  section  prevents 
them,  after  the  concrete  is  hard,  from  being  pulled  out,  and  for 
greater  security,  as  well  as  to  give  a  continuous  nailing,  it  is  com- 
mon to  cut  notches  in  the  ends  of  the  sleepers,  fitting  over  the 
upper  flange  of  the  beams.  To  these  sleepers  the  flooring  boards 
are  nailed  as  they  would  be  to  the  beams  of  a  wooden  house.  In- 
stead of  embedding  sleepers  in  the  concrete,  however,  some  build- 
ers prefer  to  lay  an  unbroken  mass  of  cinder  concrete  to  the  requi- 
site height,  and,  after  it  is  hard,  to  cover  the  floor  entirely  over 
with  an  under-flooring  of  planed  two-inch  planks,  spiked  directly 
to  the  concrete.  The  latter,  when  made  with  cinders,  is  slightly 
spongy,  and  holds  the  nails  sufficiently  well  for  this  purpose ;  and 
on  the  completion  of  the  building,  an  upper  floor  is  nailed  to  the 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  281 

plank  under-flooring.  This  method  requires  more  lumber,  as  the 
plank  under-flooring  consumes  about  five  times  as  much  as  the 
dovetailed  sleepers;  and  more  concrete  is  used;  while  the  floors 
must  be  about  two  inches  thicker  than  when  constructed  with 
sleepers,  and  the  large  addition  to  the  combustible  material  in  the 
building  may  be  objectionable  in  case  of  fire,  which  sometimes 
occurs,  even  in  fireproof  buildings ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  a  good 
deal  of  labor,  in  fitting  the  dovetailed  sleepers,  is  saved,  and  the 
plank  under-flooring  gives  an  opportunity  for  laying  the  upper 
floor  in  "parquetry"  patterns,  which  are  attractive  in  first-class 
offices.  As  our  building,  which  is  in  the  heart  of  the  banking 
district,  will  probably  be  occupied  mainly  by  bankers  and  brokers, 
we  desire  to  have  it  as  nearly  fireproof  as  possible,  and  therefore 
choose  the  method  of  laying  the  floor  on  sleepers.  We  could  still 
further  increase  the  fire-resisting  quality  of  the  structure,  making 
it  almost  perfectly  secure  against  the  communication  of  fire  from 
a  conflagration  outside,  which  is  the  usual  source  of  fires  in  such 
buildings,  by  making  all  the  outside  door  and  window  frames  of 
iron,  covering  the  doors  with  metal,  and  making  the  sashes  of 
copper,  glazed  with  wire-glass,  containing,  embedded  in  the  glass, 
a  network  of  wire,  which,  even  when  the  glass  is  cracked  by  heat, 
keeps  it  in  place,  opposing  an  effectual  barrier  to  fire  from  outside. 
Our  clients,  however,  after  the  matter  has  been  explained  to  them, 
visit  buildings  with  wire-glass  glazing,  and  decide  that  the  appear- 
ance of  the  wire  network,  and  of  the  cracks  which  are  apt  to  occur 
in  the  glass,  even  under  ordinary  conditions,  would  be  so  displeas- 
ing to  possible  tenants  that,  for  their  purposes,  it  would  be  better 
to  use  ordinary  doors  and  windows,  with  glazing  of  plate  glass. 

The  partitions,  which  are  to  be  of  light  iron  uprights,  covered 
with  metal  lath,  we  will  build  on  the  cinder  concrete 
for  further  security  against  the  spread  of  fire  from 
one  office  to  the  next,  although  they  are  often  built  on  the  under 
floor. 

The  main  stairs  will  have  marble  treads  and  risers,  secured  to 
iron  framework,  with  ornamental  iron  "face-string" 
on  the  side  next  the  hall,  wrought  iron  balustrade  set 
at  the  foot  into  the  "face-string,"  and  curving  upward  so  as  not  to 
interfere  with  the  nosing  at  the  other  end  of  the  tread ;  and  nickel- 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

plated  brass  hand  rail;  the  string  and  balusters  being  also  enliv- 
ened with  nickel-plated  ornaments  which  can  be  easily  kept  pol- 
ished. The  rail  will  be  continuous,  so  that  there  will  be  no  posts, 
except  in  sub-basement,  where  a  very  simple  post  at  the  foot  of  the 
stairs  will  be  sufficient.  The  wall  side  of  the  stairs  must  be  wain- 
scoted in  some  way,  and  as  it  would  be  impracticable,  without 

great  expense,  to  carry  a  plain  marble  lining  around 
Wainscot  .n  ,'  T  .  ,  & ,  , 

the  curves,  we  will  make  the  wainscot  of  marble  mo- 
saic. The  walls  of  the  hall  will  have  a  lining  of  plain  marble,  but, 
in  order  to  assimilate  this  to  the  mosaic  wainscot  on  the  stairs,  we 
will  finish  it  at  the  top  with  a  mosaic  border.  The  banking  rooms 
and  toilet  rooms  will  have  plain  marble  lining,  five  feet  high. 

The  smoke-stack  for  the  boiler  will  be  carried  up  between  the 

toilet-room  and  the  vault,  a  portion  of  the  space 
Smokestack  ,  .  ,  .  ,  *.  .  .  .  r 

around  it  being  used  as  a  ventilating  shaft  for  the 

toilet-rooms,  while  the  remainder  will  draw  the  stagnant  air  from 
the  hallways,  and  incidentally  from  the  rooms. 

The  vault,  which  is  provided  on  every  floor,  with  separate  com- 
partments  for  each  tenant  on  that  floor,  will  be  made 
with  channel  irons,  set  vertically,  and  covered  on  both 
sides  with  steel  plates,  riveted  on,  the  space  between  the  plates 
being  filled  with  concrete;  and  the  floors  are  made  in  a  similar 
manner.  On  the  inside  of  the  vault  the  plates  are  left  plain,  the 
various  drawers  and  boxes  being  simply  set  up  against  them ;  but 
plates  exposed  outside  must  be  covered  with  metal  lath  and  plaster, 
for  protection  from  fire.  There  are  to  be  four  large  boxes  for 
books  on  each  side  of  each  vault,  and  eight  small  ones  for  papers, 
all  with  independent  locks ;  and  the  door  from  the  vault  to  the  hall- 
way is  made  double.  All  this  work  is  the  subject  of  a  special  con- 
tract with  a  safe-manufacturer,  who  furnishes  a  diagram  of  the 
beams  and  channels  required. 

As  space  in  all  parts  of  the  building  is  valuable,  and  as  we 

propose  to  put  in  an  electric  plant,  which  will  make  us 
Elevators  •  i  _,  i  r  •  i  111-1 

independent  of  accidents  to  the  public  electric  power 

service,  we  have  decided  to  use  electric  elevators,  and,  as  these  do 
not  require  any  stand-pipe  in  the  shaft,  we  need  only  provide  space 
enough  for  the  ropes  beside  the  elevators,  and  the  two  counter-bal- 
ance weights,  with  their  guides,  which  will  not  require  more  than 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  283 

four  inches.  The  overhead  sheaves,  and  the  beams  carrying  them, 
will  be  accommodated  in  a  roof-house  over  the  shaft,  framed  of 
steel  and  covered  with  galvanized  iron,  lined  on  the  inside  with 
porous  terra-cotta  slabs,  for  which  we  have  made  provision  in  our 
plans ;  and  the  law  compels  us  to  roof  this  with  a  skylight,  so  that, 
if  fire  should  break  out  in  the  building,  and  run  up  the  oily  ropes  of 
the  elevator  shaft,  as  it  is  likely  to  do,  the  heat  will  immediately 
break  the  glass  of  the  skylight,  and  the  flames  and  smoke  will 
escape  to  the  outside,  instead  of  being  forced  out  into  the  hallways, 
as  they  would  be  if  they  could  not  escape  at  the  top.  In  order  to 
lessen  as  much  as  possible  the  amount  of  combustible  material  in 
the  shaft,  we  will  specify  that  the  elevators  and  counter-balance 
shall  have  iron  posts  and  guides,  and  that  the  overhead  work  shall 
be  entirely  of  iron. 

In  order  to  calculate  the  size  of  the  smoke-flue,  which  will  de- 
termine the  dimensions  of  the  space  to  be  left  for  it, 
we  must  consider  the  boiler  plant  which  will  be  neces- 
sary  for  furnishing  power  and  heating  the  building. 
The  largest  item  of  power  required  will  be  for  electric  lighting. 
We  must  count  upon  three  sixteen-candle  incandescent  lamps  in 
each  of  the  large  offices  on  each  floor  above  the  first,  two  in  each 
of  the  small  offices,  one  in  the  vault,  two  in  the  toilet  room,  and 
three  in  the  hallway.  This  makes  twenty-eight  in  each  office 
story.  The  first  story  will  need  about  the  same  number,  and  the 
basement  more,  perhaps  thirty-six  lights.  The  sub-basement  will 
not  need  more  than  ten  lights,  but  two  must  be  allowed  for  the 
elevators,  making  356  lights  in  all.  At  the  usual  rate,  of  ten 
sixteen-candle  lights  to  a  horse-power,  thirty-six  horse-power 
will  be  required  for  lighting  alone.  The  elevators  should  have 
twelve  horse-power  each,  making  sixty  horse-power  as  the  total 
to  be  provided.  Nothing  additional  need  be  provided  for  heat- 
ing, as  the  exhaust  from  the  engines,  when  all  are  in  operation, 
will  be  quite  sufficient  to  heat  the  building,  and,  when  only  a  por- 
tion of  the  machinery  is  in  operation,  the  surplus  live  steam  can 
be  turned  into  the  heating  pipes.  The  sidewalk  elevator  will  be 
used  mostly  at  night,  or  when  the  boilers  are  shut  down,  so  that  it 
will  be  best  to  operate  it  by  direct  hydraulic  pressure  from  the 
mains,  which  is  available  at  all  times. 


284  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

Although  space  would  be  saved  by  using  a  water-tube  boiler,  of 
which  there  are  many  excellent  varieties  in  the  market,  our  clients 
prefer,  as  they  have  plenty  of  room  in  the  sub-base- 
ment, to  use  a  plain  horizontal  return  tubular  boiler, 
which,  if  well  made,  is  quite  equal  to  any  other  in  economy  of 
fuel,  and  is  easily  managed,  and  comparatively  cheap.  A  boiler 
of  this  sort,  of  sixty  horse-power,  of  the  usual  proportions,  will 
be  54  inches  in  diameter,  and  fifteen  feet  long,  and  can  easily  be 
accommodated,  standing  on  end,  including  the  steam  nozzles,  and 
the  lugs  riveted  to  the  sides,  on  our  sidewalk  elevator;  so  that 
there  will  be  no  need  of  pulling  down  a  part  of  the  building  when 
it  becomes  necessary  to  put  in  a  new  one,  as  occasionally  happens 
where  these  points  have  not  been  considered  in  making  the  plans. 
The  boiler  should  have  seventy  three-inch  tubes,  and  a  smoke-pipe 
twenty-eight  inches  in  diameter. 

The  rule  commonly  followed  by  contractors,  of  making  the 
sectional  area  of  the  smoke-pipe  equal  to  the  combined  area  of  all 

the  tubes,  would  eive  only  a  little  over  twenty-five 
Smokestack  .  ,  ,  .  J  ..  .  .  -  .  ^ 

inches,  and  many  engineers  would  consider  this  suffi- 
cient ;  but  the  utmost  economy  of  fuel  cannot  be  secured  without 
a  free  escape  for  the  heated  gases,  and  at  least  two  inches  should 
be  added  to  the  diameter  of  a  circle  equivalent  to  the  collective 
area  of  the  tubes,  to  offset  the  loss  by  friction  against  the  sides  of 
the  stack.  We  have  already  arranged  a  place  for  the  smoke- 
stack, which  is  to  be  of  quarter-inch  boiler-plate,  with  riveted 
seams,  and  made  in  sections,  each  section  slipping  over  the  end  of 
the  next  below,  and  resting  on  a  row  of  rivets  put  in  for  the  pur- 
pose. By  this  construction  the  smoke-stack  can  easily  be  re- 
newed, when  worn  out  or  corroded,  the  necessary  sections  being 
lowered  from  the  roof,  and  set  in  place  by  means  of  the  doors 
opening  from  the  hallways  to  the  ventilating  shaft.  The  upper 
sections,  which  are  always  the  first  to  decay,  are  thus  the  most 
easily  replaced.  In  order  that  the  weight  of  the  smoke-stack  may 
be  firmly  sustained,  we  will  extend  it  to  the  concrete  floor  of  the 
sub-basement.  The  extra  length  below  the  smoke-connection 
from  the  boiler  will  then  serve  to  catch  the  fine  ashes,  and  must 
have  a  door  for  cleaning  out. 

The  boiler  should  be  so  set  that  the  communication  with  the 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  285 

chimney  will  be  as  direct  as  practicable,  not  only  to  prevent  the 
obstruction  to  the  draught  caused  by  a  long  and  crooked  smoke- 
pipe,  but  to  avoid  heating  the  boiler-room.  As  the  smoke  con- 
nection of  a  return  tubular  boiler  is  at  the  front,  we  will  place  the 
front  of  our  boiler  directly  in  line  with  the  chimney.  The  brick 
setting  will  take  up  about  two  feet  on  each  side,  and  there  must 
be  a  space  behind  the  boiler,  large  enough  for  a  man  to  get  into, 
and  furnished  with  an  iron  door,  for  removing  the  fine  ashes 
which  collect  there,  and  a  double  wall  behind  this  space,  giving  a 
total  length  to  the  boiler,  set  complete,  of  about  nineteen  feet,  by 
a  width  of  eight  and  one-half  feet.  We  will  separate  the  boiler 
room  from  the  engine  and  dynamo  room,  which  it  is  important  to 
keep  free  from  the  dust  of  coal  and  ashes,  by  partitions,  leaving  a 
passage-way  to  the  rear  of  the  boiler  from  the  boiler-room,  for 
removing  fine  ashes ;  and,  by  extending  the  boiler  room  out  under 
the  courtyard,  which  we  can  do  by  carrying  down  only  the  steel 
columns,  and  building  a  low  enclosing  wall  at  the  edge  of  the  con- 
crete foundation,  and  putting  on  a  skylight,  we  can  get  very  good 
light  and  air  in  the  boiler-room  and  coal-bin,  leaving  the  dynamo 
room  to  be  illuminated  partly  by  artificial  light,  and  partly  from 
the  sidewalk  above,  on  the  Broadway  side. 

It  is  necessary,  in  arranging  a  boiler-room  to  contain  a  tubu- 
lar boiler,  to  reserve  space  in  front  of  the  boiler  for 
drawing  out  the  tubes,  when  it  becomes  necessary  to 
replace  or  repair  them.  As  the  tubes  in  our  boiler  are  fourteen 
feet  long,  this  is  the  minimum  distance  permissible,  and  more 
space  is  desirable.  Our  plant  can  be  operated,  with  economy, 
with  an  average  consumption  of  not  more  than  a  ton  of  coal  per 
day.  By  carrying  across  a  partition  at  the  line  of  the  third  col- 
umn from  the  back  of  the  building  we  shall  enclose  a  space  capa- 
ble of  containing  120  tons  of  coal,  or  about  four  months'  supply. 
This  will  be  ample  coal  storage,  and  will  leave  a  liberal  space  in 
front  of  the  boiler. 

The  dynamo  room  will  contain  the  electric  generators  and  the 
elevator  machines,  and  may  with  advantage  be  fur- 
nished with  a  work-bench  for  the  engineer,  which,  if 
placed  under  the  sidewalk-light  at  the  Broadway  end, 
will  be  abundantly  lighted.     The  elevator  machines  will  be  most 


286  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

advantageously  situated  directly  under  the  elevators,  which  de- 
scend only  to  the  basement  floor.  In  this  way  the  ropes  can  run 

directly  from  the  drums  up  through  the  space  between 
Machines       ^e  *wo  elevat°rs  to  the  overhead  sheaves,  and  thence 

down  to  the  attachments  on  the  top  of  the  elevator 
cars,  without  the  use  of  any  leading-sheaves,  and  consequently, 
with  the  least  danger  of  accident,  and  least  liability  to  wear. 
As  we  have  plenty  of  room,  it  will  be  advantageous  to  divide 

our  electric  plant  into  three  sections,  using  one  engine 
Dynamos  ,  -  ,.  L  <•       j  •   •         i 

and  generator  for  producing  current  for  driving  the 

elevators,  and  for  the  lights  in  them;  the  second  for  furnishing 
current  for  the  "public  lights,"  in  the  halls,  vaults,  janitor's  office, 
sub-basement  and  toilet-rooms;  and  the  third  for  supplying  the 
lights  in  the  offices.  By  this  division  the  elevators  will  be  inde- 
pendent of  the  office  lights,  so  that  the  latter  will  not  be  affected, 
as  is  sometimes  the  case,  by  the  running  of  the  elevators ;  the  pub- 
lic lights  will  be  independent  of  the  elevators,  so  that  they  can  be 
used  late  at  night,  when  one  or  both  the  elevators  have  stopped 
running ;  and  the  office  lights  will  be  independent  of  either  of  the 
others.  Although  more  lights  are  provided  for  in  the  offices  than 
in  the  public  rooms,  many  of  the  tenants  will  not  use  artificial 
light  at  all,  so  that  this  division  of  the  service  is  not  very  unequal ; 
and  we  will  arrange  to  have  the  generators  "cross-connected/' 
so  that  any  one  of  the  three  can,  if  necessary,  be  called  upon  to  do 
the  work  of  any  other,  or  their  united  force  can  be  employed. 
This  arrangement  affords  security  against  the  disabling  of  the 
whole  system  by  the  stoppage  of  one  generator,  but  we  will  pro- 
vide additional  security  by  specifying  that  all  the  generators  shall 
be  arranged  to  produce  the  same  sort  of  current,  and  at  the  same 
tension,  as  the  regular  city  service  in  the  street,  and  that  a  switch 
and  connections  shall  be  provided  for  using  the  public  current  in 
case  of  need.  What  sort  of  generator  to  use  we  will  leave  to  be 
decided  later.  In  any  case  a  direct-connected  engine  and  motor 
is  preferable  to  one  in  which  the  two  parts  of  the  machine  are 
connected  by  belts ;  and,  in  general,  a  slow-speed  engine  is  to  be 
preferred  to  a  high-speed  one,  as  being  more  economical  of  fuel, 
more  durable,  and  less  liable  to  accidents ;  but  the  direct-connected 
steam  turbines,  which  run  at  an  enormous  speed,  are  simple,  and 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  28? 

possess  certain  advantages;  so  that  our  best  way  will  be,  when 
the  proper  time  comes,  to  make  special  investigation  of  the  ma- 
chines then  on  the  market. 

A  direct-connected  steam  engine  and  generator,  of  almost  any 
type,  is  a  very  compact  affair,  and  we  shall  have  ample  room  to 
install  those  that  we  need  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  be  acces- 
sible on  all  sides. 

We  shall  have,  however,  certain  accessories  to  be  accommo- 
dated, most  of  which  will  be  best  placed  in  the  boiler-room.  We 
have  decided  to  use  exhaust  steam  for  heating  the  building,  but 
this  can  be  done  in  either  of  two  ways.  By  the  first  method  the 
exhaust  pipes  from  the  three  engines  are  connected  to 
pipes  running  through  the  building,  to  supply  radiat- 
ors in  the  various  rooms;  while,  by  the  second  method,  the  ex- 
haust steam  is  kept  in  the  basement,  and  is  made  to  pass  through 
a  coil  in  a  tank  of  water,  which  it  heats,  so  as  to  cause  hot  water, 
instead  of  steam,  to  circulate  through  the  pipes  and  radiators 
above.  The  first  method,  although  often  used,  has  the  disadvan- 
tage, in  a  high  building,  that  the  exhaust  steam,  being  usually 
partly  condensed,  carries  with  it  water,  which  collects  in  the  ris- 
ing pipes  and  flows  back,  causing  "hammering"  in  the  pipes; 
while,  being  at  a  low  pressure,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  force  it 
through  long  pipes,  and  some  of  the  radiators  may  be  left  cold. 
An  imperfect  circulation  may  be  remedied  by  increasing  the  pres- 
sure, but  this  produces  a  corresponding  back-pressure  on  the  en- 
gines, lessening  their  efficiency,  and  increasing  the  necessary  con- 
sumption of  coal.  Devices  are  in  use  for  producing  a  vacuum 
in  the  heating  pipes  and  radiators,  by  means  of  an  air-pump,  and 
in  this  way  sucking  exhaust  or  other  low-pressure  steam  through 
them,  so  as  to  avoid  back-pressure  on  the  engines ;  but  we  reflect 
that  our  three  engines  will  have  very  variable  use,  the  main  elec- 
tric-light engine,  for  instance,  being  in  full  operation  for  not  more 
than  an  hour  or  two  a  day,  and  that  the  quantity  of  exhaust  steam 
available  will  vary  accordingly;  so  that  constant  attention  will 
be  required  to  turn  live  steam  into  the  heating  pipes  to  make  up 
for  deficiencies ;  and  it  seems  to  us  that  the  hot  water  system,  in 
which  the  whole  body  of  water  in  the  tank,  radiators  and  pipes, 
serves  to  store  up  whatever  heat  it  receives,  and  distribute  it 


288  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

steadily  and  uniformly,  will  be  the  most  convenient  for  our  pur- 
pose ;  while,  as  the  water  in  the  tank  condenses  the  exhaust  steam 
in  the  heating  coil,  there  can  be  no  back-pressure,  but,  instead,  a 
partial  vacuum  is  produced,  which  increases  the  efficiency  of  the 
engines,  and  saves  fuel  proportionately. 

If  we  could  have  put  the  boiler  on  a  floor  below  the  engines, 
or  on  a  lower  level,  so  that  the  water  condensed  from  the  exhaust 
steam  would  run  down  by  gravitation  into  the  boiler,  the  plant 
would  have  been  simplified ;  but  this  is  impracticable,  and  the  ex- 
haust steam,  after  passing  through  the  brass  coil  in 
Tank'Vm9       ^e  ^°^  wa^er  tank,  and  being  there  condensed,  must 
be  allowed  to  flow  into  another  tank,  from  which  it 
can  be  pumped  back  into  the  boiler.     This  receiving  tank  may  be 
of  steel  plate,  sunk  in  the  concrete,  and  it  should  have  an  over- 
flow, leading  to  the  blow-off  tank,  which  is  also  a  steel 

Tank"°ff  tan^  sun^  m  t^ie  ^oor  °*  ^ie  boiler-room,  and  in- 
tended to  receive  the  contents  of  the  boiler  when  the 
latter  is  emptied  for  cleaning.  It  would  be  more  convenient  to 
blow  off  the  contents  of  the  boiler  directly  into  the  sewer ;  but,  as 
the  hot  water  and  steam  expand  and  disjoint  the  sewer-pipes,  this 
is  forbidden  by  the  municipal  regulations,  and  the  blow-off  tank 
must  be  provided  to  receive  the  hot  water,  and  keep  it  until  cool 
enough  to  be  allowed  to  flow  into  the  sewer.  The  receiving  tank 
might  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  condensed  water  from  the  ex- 
haust allowed  to  flow  directly  into  the  blow-off  tank,  and  thence 
to  the  sewer,  but  there  would  be  a  loss  in  this,  as  fresh  water  from 
the  street  mains  would  have  to  be  supplied  to  take  the  place  of 
the  condensed  water  wasted,  and  it  would  have  to  be  heated,  with 
a  very  appreciable  consumption  of  coal,  to  the  temperature  of  the 
condensed  water,  so  that  it  is  desirable  to  save  the  latter.  As  it 
is  almost  pure  distilled  water,  it  is  very  suitable  for  being  used 
over  again  in  the  boiler,  but  it  usually  contains  oil,  brought  with 
the  steam  in  minute  particles  from  the  valves  and  cylinders  of  the 
engines,  and  this  oil  would  float  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in 
the  boiler,  corroding  the  boiler  at  the  water  line ;  so  that  it  must 
be  removed  by  a  "grease-separator"  before  it  is  stored  in  the  re- 
ceiving tank.  The  position  of  the  hot-water  heating  tank,  the 
grease-separator,  the  receiving  tank  and  the  boiler-feed  pump 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  289 

must  be  so  arranged  that  the  descent  will  be  rapid  and  continuous 
from  the  exhaust-pipes  of  the  engines,  as  nothing  is  more  dan- 
gerous to  an  engine  than  to  have  condensed  water  back  up  into 
the  cylinder.  The  system  of  hot-water  circulation  will  consist, 
in  general,  of  a  small  number  of  main  rising  pipes,  extending 
from  the  top  of  the  heating  tank  to  the  upper  story  of  the  build- 
ing, with  return  pipes  thence  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  an  ex- 
pansion tank  being  placed  on  the  roof,  communicating  with  the 
upper  end  of  the  loops  formed  by  the  risers  and  returns,  to  accom- 
modate the  increase  in  bulk  of  the  water,  amounting  to  four  or 
five  per  cent.,  due  to  heating,  which  might  otherwise  burst  the 
tank  or  pipes,  as  well  as  to  afford  an  escape  for  bubbles  of  steam 
and  air.  The  radiators  in  the  rooms  may  be  supplied  either  from 
the  ascending  or  descending  stream.  The  most  efficient,  but  the 
most  expensive  method  is  to  give  a  separate  loop  of  pipe  to  not 
more  than  two  radiators  in  each  story,  supplying  them  from  the 
riser,  and  taking  the  water,  after  cooling,  into  the  return  pipe. 
In  this  way,  if  the  pipes  are  large  enough,  every  radiator  is  sup- 
plied with  water  directly  from  the  hottest  part  of  the  tank,  and 
as  the  water  cooled  in  the  radiators  is  kept  separate  in  the  return 
pipe,  the  circulation  is  constant,  and  is  most  rapid  in  cold  weather, 
when  the  heat  is  most  needed.  Where  the  expense  of  this  cannot 
be  afforded,  the  best  circulation  is  obtained  by  carrying  not  more 
than  one  or  two  large  mains  directly  to  the  upper  story,  carrying 
them  along  horizontally  as  far  as  necessary,  and  bringing  down 
thence  a  sufficient  number  of  return  pipes  to  supply  all  the  radi- 
ators, at  least  above  the  first  story.  By  supplying  the  radiators 
from  the  descending  pipes,  the  cooling  in  them  quickens  the  circu- 
lation, so  that  if  the  pipe  mains  are  large  enough  to  give  a  free 
supply,  the  water  arrives  very  hot  at  the  upper  radiators  and  does 
not  cool  very  rapidly  as  it  descends.  Such  cooling  as  is  inevita- 
ble may  be  compensated  by  making  the  radiators  larger  in  the 
lower  stories,  so  as  to  increase  the  heating  surface  in  proportion 
to  the  loss  in  temperature;  and  for  the  first  story,  which  is  ex- 
posed to  cold  currents  from  the  doors,  the  radiators  may  be  sup- 
plied from  the  rising  mains.  In  this  case,  however,  and,  in  gen- 
eral, in  all  cases  where  hot  water  radiators  are  supplied  from 
rising  mains,  the  return  from  the  radiators  should  be  carried  to  a 
19 


290  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

return  main,  or  returned  separately  to  the  heating  tank;  for  the 
reason  that,  if  returned  into  the  rising  main,  as  is  often  done,  the 
cooler  water  from  the  radiator  mixes  with  the  hot  water  in  the 
rising  main,  and  greatly  checks  the  rapidity  of  the  circulation,  at 
the  same  time  that  the  radiator  above  receives  only  the  partially 
cooled  mixture,  instead  of  unmixed  hot  water  from  the  main. 
Where  the  radiators  are  supplied  from  the  descending  pipes,  on 
the  contrary,  the  water  may  be  returned  into  the  same  pipe  from 
which  it  was  taken.  It  will  be  cooler  from  its  sojourn  in  the  radi- 
ator, but  its  cooling  will  quicken,  instead  of  checking,  the  circula- 
tion, and  the  hot  water  will  be  drawn  over  faster  to  supply  it. 

The  amount  of  radiating  surface  required  in  the  rooms,  and 
the  size  of  the  pipes  necessary  to  supply  it,  depend  on  climate,  ex- 
posure and  other  considerations,  and  can  be  easily  calculated  when 
these  are  known.  The  details  of  the  tanks;  the  reducing- valve 
necessary  where  live  steam  is  introduced  into  the  heating  coil  to 
supplement  the  exhaust;  the  receiving  tank  for  water  condensed 
from  the  exhaust  steam  in  the  heating  coil ;  the  grease  separator 
for  removing  oil  from  the  condensed  water  before  it  is  pumped 
back  into  the  boiler ;  the  pump,  which  is  usually  made  automatic, 
and  operated  by  a  float,  by  which  the  water,  when  the  receiver  is 
full,  is  pumped  into  the  boiler;  the  damper  regulator,  by  which 
the  pressure  of  steam  automatically  controls  the  chimney  draught, 
by  means  of  a  damper  in  the  smoke-pipe;  the  arrangement  of  the 
steam  supply-pipes  to  the  engines,  and  the  main  exhaust,  which 
must  be  extended  up  to  the  roof,  beside  the  chimney,  if  possible,  to 
carry  off  the  exhaust  steam  in  summer,  when  it  is  not  used  in  the 
heating  coil,  or  surplus  steam  in  winter,  may  be  left  for  special 
study,  as  changes  and  improvements  are  constantly  being  made  in 
appliances  for  these  purposes.  In  general,  however,  all  pipes, 
valves,  etc.,  must  be  specified  of  ample  dimensions,  as  contractors 
will  otherwise  rarely  make  them  large  enough  for  working  easily, 
and  with  the  utmost  economy  of  fuel.  The  proper  size  of  the 
supply-pipes  required  for  the  engines  will  generally  be  fixed  by 
the  engine  builder;  but  the  steam  pipes  to  the  engines  must,  in 
this  case,  where  the  engines  are  so  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  boiler, 
be  carried  up  from  the  boiler  almost  to  the  ceiling,  and  then 
brought  over,  and  down  to  the  engine,  in  order  to  prevent  water 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  291 

from  being  carried  over  by  "priming,"  or  foaming,  from  the 
boiler  into  the  cylinder  of  the  engine. 

Our  contracts  for  construction,  and  for  the  heating,  power, 
elevator  and  electric  plants  having  been  made,  the  execution  will 
immediately  begin,  as  every  day's  loss  of  interest  on  the  cost  of 
the  land,  and  every  day's  delay  in  getting  the  building  ready  for 
renting,  seems  to  our  prudent  clients  a  serious  matter.  The  steel 
plans  have  already  been  made,  and  are  at  once  delivered  to  the 
contractor,  to  be  sent  to  the  rolling-mill;  and,  meanwhile,  the 
buildings  on  the  lot  must  be  removed,  and  the  foundations  put  in, 
so  that  all  may  be  ready  to  receive  the  steel  when  it  arrives.  The 
old  buildings  disappear  with  great  rapidity,  the  temporary  side- 
walks and  other  protections  to  the  public  required  by  law  are  put 
in,  and  excavation  for  foundations  is  begun,  and  carried  on  night 
and  day.  The  shoring  of  the  streets,  to  prevent  settlement  under 
the  incessant  traffic,  is  effected  in  sections,  with  great  care,  and 
the  area  is  at  last  ready  for  the  concrete.  ~  This  is  to 
be  made  with  one  part  of  Portland  cement  to  four  of 
sand,  and  six  of  broken  stone,  mixed  by  machinery.  The  method 
described  in  the  books,  of  mixing  the  concrete  with  only  enough 
water  to  give  it  about  the  consistency  of  garden  soil,  and  tamp- 
ing each  layer  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  until  the  water  ap- 
pears on  the  surface,  is  somewhat  relaxed  by  architects  and  en- 
gineers at  present,  and  although  the  concrete  should  not  be  pasty, 
and,  if  any  such  is  put  in,  it  should  be  taken  out  at  once,  it  is  con- 
sidered permissible  to  use  it  so  moist  as  to  give  a  film  of  water 
on  the  surface  with  little  tamping.  In  any  case,  the  layers  should 
not  be  more  than  twelve  inches  thick;  and,  of  course,  the  mate- 
rials must  be  the  best  possible.  The  manufacture  of 
Portland  cement  has  been  so  greatly  improved  within  cement* 
the  past  few  years  that  it  is  no  longer  necessary,  as  it 
once  was,  to  test  every  barrel ;  and,  with  a  direct  consignment  of 
cement  from  the  best  American  or  German  makers  only  the  first 
few  barrels  will  need  testing.  Many  American  makers  follow 
the  English  practice  of  delivering  Portland  cement  in  bags;  but, 
in  this  case,  stricter  testing  is  necessary,  as  the  cement  dete- 
riorates rapidly  in  bags. 

The  mixing  should  be  carefully  watched.     Workmen  rarely 


292 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


have  any  conception  of  the  requisites  for  good  concrete,  and  do 

not  hesitate  to  smuggle  in  portions  reduced  to  mere  mud  by  the 

forgetfulness  of  the  men  whose  duty  it  is  to  turn  off  the  water, 

.  without  knowing  or  caring  that  a  streak  of  this  sort 

may  form  a  dangerous  seam  in  the  mass.  The  sand 
and  broken  stone  should  also  be  looked  after,  to  make  sure  that 
no  loamy  or  clayey  material  is  mixed  with  them.  The  positions 
for  the  blow-off  and  receiving  tanks,  which  are  sunk  in  the  sub- 
basement  floor,  must  be  fixed,  and  a  hole  formed  in  the  concrete 
for  them,  or  the  tanks  themselves  buried  in  the  concrete,  as  it 
would  be  impracticable  to  dig  out  a  place  for  them  after  the  hard- 
ening of  the  concrete. 

As  soon  as  the  concrete  is  hard  enough,  which  will  be  within 
forty-eight  hours  after  the  last  layer  is  put  in  place,  the  building 

of  the  retaining  walls  may  begin,  and,  being  of  simple 
Wans"1"9  niasonry,  of  large  blocks  of  granite,  roughly  cut, 

they  can  be  carried  up  rapidly,  so  that  in  a  few  days 
the  sub-basement  floor  is  clear  for  receiving  the  bases  for  the  col- 
umns, which  are  usually,  though  not  always,  of  cast  iron.  These 
must  be  set  in  cement,  with  great  exactness,  and  carefully  lev- 
elled ;  for,  as  the  steel  frame  will  arrive  at  the  building  all  fitted, 
and  with  the  rivet-holes  punched,  no  variations  are  possible.  The 
columns  have  a  small  base  of  steel  plate,  which  is  punched  to  cor- 
respond with  holes  formed  in  the  cast  iron  base,  so  that  they  can 
be  bolted  together,  and  as  the  steel  frame  begins  to  arrive  just  as 
the  bases  are  set,  the  work  can  go  on  rapidly.  In  order  to  save 
time  in  construction,  although  at  a  little  extra  expense  for  iron, 
the  columns  are  usually  made  long  enough  to  extend  through 
two,  and  often  three,  stories ;  and  as  soon  as  a  row  of  columns  is 
set  up,  and  the  girders  and  beams  which  it  carries  are  hoisted 
into  place,  and  temporarily  secured  with  a  few  bolts,  several 
gangs  of  riveters  can  be  set  at  work,  and  the  whole  permanently 
secured  while  the  next  two  or  three  stories  are  being  put  on. 

The  inspection  of  a  steel  frame  is  mostly  done  before  it 
reaches  the  building.  The  specifications  should  define  very 
strictly  the  quality  of  the  steel,  requiring,  for  example,  that  the 
ultimate  tensile  strength  shall  be  not  less  than  60,000  nor  more 
than  63,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  that  the  elastic  limit  shall 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  293 

not  be  less  than  31,000  pounds,  and  the  elongation  not  less  than 
22  per  cent,  in  8  inches,  and  should  require  the  contractor  to  fur- 
nish satisfactory  certificates  that  all  the  steel  used  complies  with 
the  specification.  There  are,  at  all  the  great  rolling-mill  centres, 
experts  whose  profession  it  is  to  make  the  tests  desired  by  archi- 
tects and  engineers,  and,  where  the  contract  requires  it,  samples 
of  the  steel  to  be  used  in  the  frame  are  submitted  to  these  experts, 
and  tested  by  them,  and  a  certificate  of  the  result  returned.  The 
reputable  rolling-mills  submit  their  material  conscientiously  to 
test,  and  architects  who  are  reasonable  in  their  demands  can  de- 
pend on  the  correctness  of  the  certificates. 

The  workmanship,  however,  may  be  so  bad  as  to  spoil  the 
best  materials.  If  standard  riveting  and  connections  are  called 
for  in  the  contract  there  is  not  likely  to  be  any  conspicuous  evasion 

of  the  agreement,  which  would  be  immediately  de- 

,     , ,,        .     ,.        •,     n  i      i     j       TT       11    Workmanship 

tected ;  but  the  riveting  itself  may  be  bad.     Usually, 

the  rivet-holes  are  punched  by  a  machine,  using,  as  a  guide,  in- 
dentations made  by  hand  on  the  metal  from  a  full-size  drawing. 
Where  three  or  more  pieces  are  to  be  riveted  together,  the  diffi- 
culty of  marking  them  all  by  hand,  and  of  punching  them  after- 
wards, with  such  accuracy  that  all  the  holes  will  come  exactly 
concentric  with  each  other,  is  practically  insuperable.  In  inferior 
work,  after  the  pieces  are  put  together,  and  held  temporarily  by 
bolts,  rivets  are  put  in,  considerably  smaller  than  the  holes,  so  that 
they  may  find  their  way  past  the  irregularities,  and  are  hammered 
down.  In  theory,  the  white-hot  and  soft  rivet,  on  being  ham- 
mered, is  forced  out  into  the  irregularities  of  the  space  which  it 
is  to  occupy,  so  as  to  fill  them  completely;  but,  in  practice,  it  is 
usually  simply  bent,  leaving  vacancies  on  different  sides,  accord- 
ing to  the  variations  in  the  punching,  and  holding  the  pieces  to- 
gether very  imperfectly,  although,  after  the  head  of  the  rivet  is 
hammered  down,  and  formed  into  shape,  its  appearance  is  ex- 
actly the  same  as  that  of  one  perfectly  fitted.  Where  the  punch- 
ing has  been  so  irregular  that  not  even  a  small  rivet  can  be  put 
through  the  holes,  it  is  common  in  inferior  work  to  employ  a 
"drift-pin,"  or  long,  hardened  steel  spike,  which  is  driven  through 
the  holes,  and,  by  violent  compression,  or  even  tearing,  forces  a 
passage  large  enough  to  admit  a  rivet.  This  device  is  likely  still 


294  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

further  to  crack  the  steel,  which,  by  the  concussion  of  punching, 
is  generally  already  slightly  fissured  around  the  holes ;  and  its  use 
should  not  be  permitted  in  important  structures.  In  first-class 
work,  the  holes,  which  are  marked  with  great  accuracy,  are 
punched  somewhat  smaller  than  the  size  of  the  rivet  to  be  used ; 
and,  after  the  pieces  are  temporarily  put  together,  are  bored  out 
with  a  pneumatic  drill,  or  reamer,  which  leaves  them  perfectly 
concentric,  smooth,  free  from  the  minute  cracks  left  by  the  punch, 
and  ready  for  sound  and  strong  riveting. 

The  difference  between  good  and  bad  workmanship  in  these 
matters,  in  a  structure  whose  stability  may  depend  upon  the  per- 
fection of  a  joint,  is  so  important  that  a  local  inspector  should 
oversee  the  shop-riveting,  and  the  same  inspector  may  with  ad- 
vantage supervise  the  painting  of  the  pieces,  which  is  the  last 
operation  before  they  are  shipped  from  the  mill  to  the  building. 

The  essential  point  to  be  observed  in  painting  iron  work  is 
that  there  shall  be  no  rust  under  the  paint.  If  rust  has  ever 
begun,  it  will  continue  to  increase  under  the  paint,  while,  if  the 
.  metal  is  painted  before  any  rust  has  formed,  it  is  pro- 

tected as  long  as  the  paint  remains  unbroken.  It  is 
common  to  remove  the  "mill  scale,"  or  blackish  coating  which 
forms  on  the  steel  while  being  rolled,  with  wire  brushes  before 
painting,  as  the  scale  is  so  loosely  attached  that  it  may  come  off, 
and  bring  the  paint  with  it. 

As  ordinary  oil  paint  on  iron  buried  in  masonry  decays  after 
a  few  years,  leaving  a  minute  crevice  through  which  moist  air  can 
circulate,  bringing  rust  with  it,  we  have  specified  that  the  steel- 
work, after  cleaning,  shall  be  painted  at  the  shop  before  shipment 
with  a  wash  of  Portland  cement  mixed  with  a  solution  of  silicate 
of  soda.  This  coating  is  more  brittle  than  paint,  but  it  adheres 
well  for  a  time;  and,  after  the  steel  has  received  its  casing  of 
masonry,  it  unites  with  the  mortar  of  the  masonry  to  form  a  very 
durable  protection. 

After  the  frame  is  on  the  ground,  the  riveting  of  the  pieces 
together  begins.  It  was  at  one  time  common  to  use  bolts  instead 
of  rivets  for  this  part  of  the  construction,  but  bolts,  screwed  up 
by  hand,  and  fitting  loosely  in  the  holes,  form  a  connection  very 
inferior  to  that  made  with  rivets,  which,  being  hammered  when 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  295 

soft,  are  forced  hard  against  the  sides  of  the  rivet-holes,  and,  by 
their  contraction  on  cooling,  draw  the  parts  firmly  together;  so 
that  riveting  is  now  preferred.  It  is,  however,  necessary  to 
hold  the  pieces  temporarily  with  bolts,  while  the  riv- 
ets are  being  put  in;  and  joints  occasionally  occur  Riveting 
which  cannot  be  reached  with  a  riveting-hammer,  so 
that  both  must  be  used.  As  the  field-riveting  is  even  more  im- 
portant to  the  stability  of  the  building  than  the  shop-riveting,  it 
must  be  carefully  watched.  If  a  rivet-head  snaps  off  on  cooling, 
as  sometimes  happens,  the  rivet  must  be  driven  out,  and  a  new 
one  put  in ;  and  every  day  the  rivets  put  in  on  the  previous  day 
must  be  inspected,  and  tapped  with  a  hammer,  to  see  if  any  of 
them  are  loose;  and  such  as  prove  to  be  loose  must  have  their 
heads  cut  off  with  a  cold  chisel,  the  rivet  driven  out,  and  a  fresh 
one  inserted.  As  fast  as  the  joints  are  riveted,  they  should  be 
painted,  together  with  any  places  that  may  have  lost  their  cover- 
ing by  rubbing  or  otherwise,  with  the  Portland  cement  and  sili- 
cate of  soda  mixture,  so  as  to  protect  them  until  they  are  covered 
by  the  masonry. 

The  first  masonry  supported  by  the  steel  work  which  is  placed  • 
in  position  is  the  arching  of  the  floors,  but,  before  the  blocks  are 
set,  the  tie-rods,  which  resist  the  thrust  of  the  flat  arches,  must 
be  put  in  and  screwed  up  tight.  The  floor  beams 
should  have  been  punched  for  these  tie-rods,  with 
pairs  of  holes  in  the  middle  of  the  web,  the  pairs  being  about  five 
feet  apart.  As  each  tie-rod  is  a  little  longer  than  the  space  be- 
tween the  floor-beams,  they  will  alternate,  one  rod  passing 
through  the  right-hand  holes  of  a  pair,  and  the  next  through  the 
left-hand  holes.  Instead  of  tie-rods,  passing  through  holes  in 
the  web  of  the  beams,  flat  bars  are  sometimes  used,  hooked  over 
the  flanges,  but  these  are  much  less  effective.  The  arch  blocks 
are  of  the  "end  section"  type,  and  hang  a  little  below  the  beams, 
the  back  of  the  "skewback"  blocks,  which  come  next  to  the  beams, 
being  formed  with  a  deep  notch,  which  fits  over  the  lower  flange 
of  the  beam,  so  as  to  protect  it  from  fire.  The  floor  arches  are 
laid  in  Portland  cement  mortar,  and  are  supported  during  con- 
struction  by  a  platform  of  planks,  hung  from  the  beams  on  each 
side.  It  is  desirable  to  level  up  the  floor  with  concrete,  to  the 


296  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

underside  of  the  boarding,  as  soon  as  the  arches  are  in,  so  that  the 
concrete,  which  contains  many  tons  of  water,  can  be  drying  out 
while  the  rest  of  the  construction  is  going  on.  If  the  concreting 
is  left  until  later,  the  dampness  from  it  will  affect  the  floors  and 
finish.  The  roof  is  made  with  flat  arches  exactly  like  a  floor,  and 
is  concreted  up  in  the  same  way,  but  no  sleepers  are  laid  in  the 
concrete,  which  is  simply  smoothed  over,  and  covered  with  a  com- 
position roof,  of  tarred  felt,  coal-tar  or  asphalt  composition  and 
gravel;  finishing,  when  the  walls  are  ready,  with  a  copper  cor- 
nice, supported  by  iron  brackets  riveted  to  the  frame.  To  avoid 
subsequent  cutting  of  holes  in  the  terra-cotta  arches  of  floors  and 
roof,  which  weakens  them  very  much,  sleeves  should  be  built  in 
for  the  heating  and  plumbing  pipes;  and  the  gas-pipes  and  elec- 
tric conduits  which  cross  the  floors  should  be  laid  in  the  concrete. 
The  frame  is  now  ready  for  the  masonry  of  the  walls,  which 
may,  and  usually  does,  begin  at  the  second  or  third  floor,  so  as  to 
leave  more  time  for  the  preparation  of  the  more  elaborate  casings 
of  the  metal  work  in  the  first  story.  As  the  masonry 
of  each  story  is  independent  of  the  others,  it  is  prac- 
ticable, where  saving  of  time  is  of  great  importance,  to  begin 
work  on  several  stories  at  once,  but  this  is  unfavorable  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  finished  building,  unless  belts  or  string-courses 
are  arranged  to  conceal  the  junction  of  the  work  in  the  several 
stories.  In  any  case  the  main  point  to  be  attended  to  is  the  thor- 
ough bonding  of  the  work,  so  as  to  make  it  as  far  as  possible  in- 
dependent of  iron  ties.  Our  building  has  the  two  lower  stories 
of  white  terra-cotta  blocks,  the  rest  being  of  white  brick,  with 
terra-cotta  bands  in  the  upper  story.  The  brickwork  is  easily 
bonded  around  the  columns,  so  as  to  make  a  sort  of  chimney, 
with  the  column  in  the  middle,  which  is  amply  sustained  in  every 
story  by  the  column  brackets  in  front,  the  wall  girders,  with  their 
wide  top-plates,  on  the  sides,  and  the  floor-beams  and  arches  at 
the  back ;  and  the  terra-cotta  blocks  are  so  formed  as  to  bond  in 
the  same  way.  The  remaining  brickwork  on  the  street  fronts, 
consisting  of  the  masonry  around  the  windows,  is  efficiently  car- 
ried by  the  plates  on  the  wall-girders,  the  floors,  and  the  arches 
over  the  windows,  which  extend  through  the  entire  thickness  of 
the  wall.  The  most  serious  problem  is  presented  by  the  walls 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


297 


without  windows;  but  as  these  are  supported  on  the  outside  by 
the  girder  plates,  which  extend  to  within  an  inch  of  the  face  of 
the  wall,  and  on  the  inside  by  the  floors,  and  are  steadied  by  the 
columns,  they  may  be  regarded,  if  well  bonded,  as  perfectly  secure. 

The  permanency  of  the  whole  construction  depends,  however, 
on  that  of  the  steel  frame,  so  that  this  must  be  assured.  The  con- 
dition of  such  permanency  is  that  every  piece  of  structural  steel 
in  the  portions  of  the  building  exposed  to  the  weather  must  be 
buried  in  masonry  in  complete  contact  with  it.  So  far  as  is* 
known,  there  is  no  limit  to  the  duration  of  steel  completely  em- 
bedded in  Portland  cement,  but  any  vacant  spaces  next  the  steel 
give  an  opportunity  for  the  circulation  of  moist  air,  which  quickly 
sets  up  corrosion.  Our  steel  frame  has  been  kept  well  painted 
with  Portland  cement  wash,  and,  by  laying  the  masonry  as  close 
to  the  steel  as  practicable,  and  grouting  it  at  intervals  of  not  more 
than  one  foot  in  height  with  thin  cement,  we  can  make  sure  that 
no  air-spaces  are  left,  or  can  be  formed  by  the  decay  of  paint,  and 
that  the  building  is  therefore  as  safe  as  science  can  make  it.  The 
exposed  columns  in  the  basement  and  sub-basement,  instead  of 
being  cased  in  brickwork,  may,  with  equal  safety,  be  wrapped 
with  metal  lath,  and  heavily  plastered,  the  plaster  being  pressed 
everywhere  into  contact  with  the  metal.  This  gives  some  econ- 
omy of  space  and  permits  occasional  examination  of  the  steel. 

There  are  two  rival  methods  of  setting  window  frames  in 
brick  walls.  By  the  first  method,  a  "skeleton  frame"  is  made,  of 
rough  joist,  for  every  window,  of  the  exact  size  of  the  permanent 
frame,  and  the  brickwork  is  built  around  it.  When 
the  masonry  is  hard,  the  skeleton  frames  are  re-  Prairies' 
moved,  the  recess  formed  by  building  around  them  is 
smoothly  plastered  with  cement,  and  the  permanent  frame  is  set 
in  place,  fitting  tightly  to  the  space  prepared  for  it.  By  the  other 
method,  the  permanent  frame  is  built  in  at  once,  and  it  would 
appear  that  in  this  way  it  might  be  quite  as  solidly  set  as  by  the 
first  method.  In  practice,  however,  the  permanent  frame,  not- 
withstanding the  braces  which  are  intended  to  hold  it  in  position, 
is  more  or  less  displaced  by  building  brickwork  against  it,  and 
bricklayers  always  cut  the  bricks  so  as  to  leave  a  considerable 
space  around  the  frame.  In  this  way  there  is  less  danger  of 


298  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

moving  the  frame,  and  if  it  should  be  slightly  displaced,  it  can  be 
forced  back  into  its  proper  position  after  the  brickwork  around 
it  is  completed ;  but  the  space  around  it  allows  air  to  come  through 
freely,  making  the  room  cold  in  winter,  and  disfiguring  the  inside 
of  the  walls,  around  the  window  casings,  with  the  dust  and  soot 
which  it  brings  with  it.  To  prevent  this,  it  is  therefore  neces- 
sary, in  brick  walls,  after  the  masonry  of  the  walls  is  completed, 
to  take  off  the  outside  beads,  which  cover  the  joint  between  the 
frame  and  the  brickwork,  and  caulk  the  joint  with  oakum,  or, 
occasionally,  with  cotton,  afterwards  replacing  the  beads.  When 
this  is  done,  screens  of  cotton  cloth  can  be  put  in  the  windows, 
and  the  plasterers'  work  may  begin. 

The  object  of  protecting  the  windows  with  screens  while 
plastering  is  two- fold.     It  is  very  important  to  protect  fresh  plas- 
tering from  currents  of  air,  which  cause  it  to  dry  too  rapidly  on 
the  surface,  producing  "chip-cracks,"  and  the  cotton 
Screens         doth  w^cn  coyers  the  screens  not  only  keeps  out  the 
wind,  but  is  said  to  act  something  the  part  of  the 
membrane  in  the  dialyzer  used  by  chemists,  taking  up  the  mois- 
ture from  the  atmosphere  of  the  room,  and  transferring  it  to  the 
outside,  so  that  it  assists  materially  in  drying  the  room. 

We  have  specified  that  the  inside  course  of  all  walls  must  be 
of  hollow  brick,  which,  while  strong  enough  for  this  purpose, 
give  a  cellular  structure  which  aids  very  much  in  preventing  mois- 
ture  from   the   outside  of  the   wall   from   soaking 
Brick™  through  to  the  inside;  so  that,  with  hard  and  nearly 

impervious  brick  and  terra-cotta  for  the  outside  of 
the  wall,  and  hollow  brick  for  the  inside  course,  we  can  apply  the 
plastering  directly  to  the  inside  face  of  the  brick  walls,  with  little 
danger  that  it  will  be  stained  by  rains,  or  by  the  condensation 
which  takes  place  on  the  inside  of  solid  walls  in  winter;  and,  to 
make  this  still  more  certain,  the  two  inner  courses  of  the  dead 
wall  which  rises  above  the  adjoining  building  on  Broadway,  and 
which  is  exposed  to  southeasterly  storms,  are  required  to  be  of 
hollow  brick. 

Before  any  plastering  is  done,  however,  the  partitions  must 
be  set.  To  save  space,  these  are  made  of  channel  irons,  set  about 
eight  inches  apart,  bent  at  a  right  angle  at  top  and  bottom,  and 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 


299 


secured  to  the  floor  and  ceiling  by  nails  driven  through  holes  in 
the  bent  portion.  The  channel  iron  studs  are  covered  on  one  side 
with  metal  lath,  firmly  secured  to  the  iron  with  wire,  and  the 
whole  is  then  plastered,  usually  with  Windsor  ce- 
ment, Adamant  or  other  hard  plaster,  first  on  the  partitions^" 
side  which  has  the  lath,  pressing  the  mortar  well 
through,  and  then  on  the  other  side,  so  as  to  make  a  solid  parti- 
tion of  hard  plaster,  in  which  the  channel  irons  and  the  metal 
lath  are  embedded.  The  partition  thus  formed  is  from  one  and 
one-half  to  two  and  one-half  inches  thick,  according  to  the  height 
of  the  rooms,  and  consequent  size  of  the  channel  irons,  and  is 
amply  strong  for  our  purpose.  Its  principal  defect  is  that  no 
nails  can  be  driven  into  it,  so  that  it  does  not  lend  itself  well  to  the 
subsequent  application  of  woodwork,  but,  as  our  building  con- 
tains very  little  woodwork,  the  door  frames  being  of  cast-iron, 
and  the  bases  of  marble,  this  is  not  a  matter  of  importance.  The 
picture-moulding,  which  is  the  only  indispensable  wooden  part 
of  the  construction,  can  be  nailed  to  blocks,  set  at  intervals  be- 
tween the  channel  irons.  The  cast  iron  door  frames,  which  are 
recessed  on  the  back  to  receive  the  partition,  and  have  screw- 
holes  tapped  in  them  for  the  hinges,  must  first  be  set  in  place,  and 
the  channel  irons  built  around  them.  The  ceilings  will  first  be 
plastered,  the  mortar  being  applied  directly  to  the  underside  of 
the  floor  arches,  and  the  rest  of  the  plastering  can  go  on  as  usual. 
Three  coats  will  be  necessary,  as  the  surfaces  are  too  uneven  to 
be  properly  covered  with  two  coats. 

While  this  is  going  on,  the  sidewalk,  which  is  put  in  by  spe- 
cialists, under  guarantees  as  to  strength,  may  be  completed,  so  as 
to  be  restored  to  public  use  as  soon  as  possible,  allowing  two  or 
three  weeks  for  the  necessary  hardening.    The  boiler 
has  already  been  put  in,  a  certificate  of  test  of  each 
sheet,  and  a  policy  of  insurance,  being  furnished  with  it,  as  re- 
quired by  the  specification.     The  setting  has  been  watched,  to 
see  that  the  brickwork  is  well  bonded,  a  point  in 
which  boiler-setters  are  apt  to  fail ;  that  the  fire  brick          setting 
lining  is  of  good  material,  and  that  the  plans  fur- 
nished by  the  boiler-setter,  and  approved,  are  carried  out.     It  is 
probably  impossible  to  set  a  boiler  so  that  the  brick  setting  will 


300  BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

not  crack  sooner  or  later.  Even  where  the  boiler  is  suspended 
by  rods  from  iron  beams  overhead,  so  as  to  be  completely  inde- 
pendent of  the  setting,  this  will  often  crack  by  its  own  unequal 
expansion,  and  the  rollers  usually  put  under  one  or  more  of  the 
"lugs"  of  a  large  boiler  seem  to  be  of  little  use;  so  that  the  main 
dependence  should  be  on  the  thorough  bonding  of  the  brickwork. 
The  grate  has  been  selected  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  engineer  in 
charge  of  the  building,  who  is  likely  to  accomplish  the  best  re- 
sults with  the  kind  of  grate  which  he  prefers.  A  simple  smoke- 
consuming  device,  which  will  satisfy  the  official  inspectors,  is  in- 
cluded in  the  contract  for  the  boiler,  but  nothing  else,  in  the  shape 
of  water-tubes  in  the  fire-box,  water-tube  grates  or  similar  de- 
vices, has  been  introduced,  as  our  boiler  is  quite  large  enough  for 
the  service  demanded  of  it,  and  these  inventions,  excellent  as 
some  of  them  are  where  the  boiler  is  rather  small  for  its  work, 
or  where  particularly  quick  steaming  is  desired,  would  add  to  the 
expense  of  the  plant,  without,  in  this  instance,  any  important 
advantage. 

Before  the  plastering  is  done,  all  the  gas  pipes,  and  the  con- 
duits for  electric  wires,  must  be  in  place.  Channels  have  been 
cut  in  the  walls  where  necessary  for  vertical  pipes,  and  the  hori- 
zontal pipes  have  been  carried  out  from  them  in  the 
Ccmduits  sPace  occupied  by  the  sleepers,  and  buried  in  the  con- 
crete, dropping  down  through  the  floor  arching  to 
their  intended  position.  The  wires  are  not  drawn  into  the  con- 
duits until  later;  but  the  position  of  outlets  and  switches  must 
be  verified,  and  care  taken  to  see  that  the  conduits  are  laid  with 
easy  curves,  so  that  the  wires  can  be  drawn  through  them  with- 
out obstruction. 

The  plastering  may  now  go  on  without  interruption;  and  as 
soon  as  it  is  done,  the  plumbing  pipes  must  be  set  up.  All  the 
main  waste,  soil  and  air-pipes  are  to  be  of  wrought  iron,  screwed 

together.     Although  the  use  of  such  pipes  adds  some- 
Plastering       t  ?  ,  ..        i     •       •    1 1    <•     i- 

thing  to  the  expense,  nothing  else  is  suitable  for  lines 

thirteen  stories  high,  the  expansion  and  contraction  in  which 
would  soon  loosen  the  lead-caulked  joints  of  cast  iron  pipes.  The 
pipes  and  fittings  must  be  well  screwed  together,  instead  of  being 
left,  as  they  often  are,  hanging  with  only  one  or  two  turns.  The 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE  301 

supply  pipes  are  all  of  annealed  brass ;  and  all  the  pipes  are  speci- 
fied to  be  finished  in  aluminum  bronze  at  completion. 

As  soon  as  the  piping  is  done,  the  fixtures  can  be  set,  but,  in 
order  to  do  this  to  advantage,  the  marble  floors  and  linings  of  the 
toilet-rooms  should  be  put  in ;  and  the  contractor  wishes  to  com- 
plete at  the  same  time  the  marble  stairs,  and  the  floors  and  wain- 
scoting of  the  halls.  There  is  no  objection  to  this,  if  the  marble  is 
carefully  protected  until  all  the  workmen  are  out  of  the  building, 
by  putting  sawdust  or  felt  paper  over  it,  and  covering  this  with 
boards.  If  this  is  not  done,  men  carrying  heavy  pipes,  radiators 
or  other  materials  are  sure  to  drop  them  occasionally,  to  rest 
themselves,  particularly  on  the  stairs;  and  the  result  very  fre- 
quently is  to  "stun"  the  marble  at  the  point  of  contact,  producing 
at  first  an  almost  imperceptible  dent,  but  crushing  the  stone  for 
some  distance  beyond,  so  that  the  particles  crumble  away  and 
fall  out,  leaving  a  conspicuous  hole. 

The  elevator  contractors  have  had  a  temporary  car  running, 
for  the  use  of  the  builder,  and  this  is  now  to  be  replaced  by  the 
finished  car,  of  wrought  iron  and  bronze,  and  the  wrought  iron 
enclosure  will  be  put  in  at  the  same  time.  The  construction  of 
elevators  and  their  enclosures  has  been  brought  to  great  perfec- 
tion, but  care  will  be  necessary  to  see  that  the  guides  are  straight 
and  smooth,  and  that  the  ropes  run  smoothly.  Even  the  best 
wire  ropes  will  endure  only  a  certain  amount  of  bending,  and,  if 
the  bending  in  a  given  place  is  complicated  by  any  twisting  their 
life  will  be  materially  shortened.  With  a  bad  wire  rope,  a  few 
weeks'  wear  will  be  sufficient  to  give  the  bristly  aspect  which  de- 
notes impending  rupture,  and  it  is  well  to  watch  for  this.  Nearly 
all  passenger  elevators  are  hung  with  two  ropes,  either  of  which 
alone  would  hold  the  car ;  and  there  are  usually  two  more  ropes 
carried  from  the  car  over  the  sheaves  to  the  counterbalance,  mak- 
ing four  ropes  to  each  car.  Even  with  these,  there  is  always  some 
danger  connected  with  elevators,  and  the  danger  is  considerably 
greater  in  fireproof  buildings,  in  which  it  is  necessary  to  make 
the  guides  of  iron,  as  these  iron  guides,  covered  with  grease,  do 
not  give  much  hold  to  safety-catches. 

The  space  between  the  elevator  car  and  the  landings  should 
also  be  observed.  It  should  never  exceed  two  inches,  on  account 


BUILDING    SUPERINTENDENCE 

of  the  danger  that  passengers  may  get  their  feet  caught;  and  it 
cannot  safely  be  much  less,  as  the  car  is  apt  to  sway  slightly  in  its 
motion.  Most  passenger  elevator  cars  have  no  door,  the  doors 
in  the  enclosure  on  each  landing  being  all  that  is  required,  and 
these  doors  should  be  set  close  to  the  edge  of  the  shaft,  so  that 
people  may  not  be  tempted  to  put  their  heads  out  of  the  car ;  still 
less  to  step  out  of  the  car  upon  a  ledge  between  the  shaft  and  the 
door  of  the  enclosure.  In  small  office  buildings,  which  have  no 
separate  freight  elevator,  it  is  usual  to  put  hinges  on  the  "fixed 
panel,"  both  of  the  enclosure  and  the  car,  so  that  the  whole  front 
may  be  opened  for  carrying  up  furniture. 

In  the  meantime,  the  interior  finishing  will  be  going  on.  Of 
this  there  is  very  little,  the  picture  moulding  around  the  top  of  all 
the  rooms,  and  the  shelves  and  hook-strips,  forming  the  greater 
part,  except  the  doors,  which  will  not  be  hung  until  the  upper 
floors  are  laid.  The  laying  of  these  only  waits  until  the  sashes 
are  hung ;  and,  while  these  are  being  put  in,  small  pieces  of  floor- 
ing are  set,  at  the  proper  height,  so  that  the  radiators  may  be 
placed  on  them,  and  connected;  it  being  very  desirable  to  have 
heat  in  the  rooms  as  soon  as  the  upper  floors  are  finished,  so  as 
to  keep  the  latter  dry,  and  counteract  the  effect  upon  them  of  the 
damp  masonry  by  which  they  are  surrounded.  As  soon,  there- 
fore, as  the  radiators  are  connected,  the  floors  can  be  completed, 
the  doors  hung,  the  locks  and  knobs  attached,  and  the  painters 
and  glaziers  turned  in,  followed  by  the  gas-fixture  men  and  the 
electricians,  who  will  connect  the  fixtures  and  have  the  building 
ready  to  be  turned  over  to  the  owners. 


PMOFBF    *.    HEARST 

ARCHITECTURAL  LIBRARY 


INDEX 


Air,  Expansion  of 170 

Air  Supply 176 

Anchor 60,  69,  73 

Anchorage   56 

Angle  Bead 97 

Arch  59 

Ashlar  9,  60,  61 

Ashlar  Line 13 

Aspect  '. ...  106 

Avenue  Building 23 

B 

Back  Plastering 150 

Balloon  Frame 126 

Banking  Room 270 

Base  Board 101 

Bath  Tub 163 

Batter  Boards 19 

Beams,  Built 87 

Bell  Wires 145 

Bells,  Specification  for 244 

Belly  Truss 87 

Bench  Mark 20 

Bevelling  Beams    66 

Bibb  Cock 166 

Blind  Nailing 189 

Blow-off  Tank 288 

Boiler  Setting 299 

Boilers   284 

Bolted  Joints 275 

Bolts  198 

Bonding   47 

Bonding  of  Chimneys 135 

Boston  Finish 199 

Brace 125,  129 

Brace,   Iron 275 

Braced  Frame 124 

Brass  Pipes 158 

Brick  Arches 59 

Bricks   58,  134 

Bricks,  Hollow 298 

Bridging  Floors 68 


(303) 


Bridging  Partitions 94 

Broach  9 

Brown  Coat 155 

Built  Beams 87 

Bush  Hammering n 

Butts   199 


Cambering  64 

Cantilever   272 

Capped  Flashings 78 

Carpenter's  Specification 227 

Casing  Steel  Frame 276 

Casings  149 

Cement   36 

Cement,  Portland 291 

Cesspool   202 

Chain  Bolt , 198 

Channel  Iron  Partitions 249 

Chimney  Bars 136 

Chimney,  Steam 284 

Chimneys   134 

Church,  Construction  of 7 

Clamps 60 

Clay  Foundation 27,  108 

Coal  Bin 285 

Cocks 165 

Cold  Air  Box 175 

Colonial  Doors 195 

Compound  Beams 87 

Compression  Cocks 166 

Concrete 37,  178,  225,  291 

Concrete  Footings 271 

Concrete   Foundation 273 

Concreting  Floor 178 

Conduits  for  Electric  Wires 144 

Construction  of  Stone  Church...  7 
Construction     of     Steel     Frame 

Building   265 

Contamination  of  Wells 202 

Contract,  Model 261 

Contracts 258 

Coping   73 


304 


INDEX 


Cornice,  Copper 296 

Cornice,  Plaster 155 

Cornice,  Stone 73 

Cotton  Screens 298 

Cottonwood  117 

Crandle 10 

Crowning  Beams 64 

D 

Derrick  56 

Derrick  Laid  Stones 55 

Diagonals,  Measuring 14 

Direct  Plunger  Elevator 279 

Direct  Radiation 287 

Direction  of  Building  Work I 

Dog-legged  Stairs   181 

Door  Frames 179 

Doors  192 

Doors,  Colonial 195 

Draft  Line 10 

Drainage 202 

Draining  Site 113 

Droving  10 

Dry  Rot 66,  118 

Dry  Wall 115 

Dry  Well 202 

Dynamo  Room 285 

Dynamos  280 


Electric  Gas-lighting  Specification  245 

Electric  Lighting  Specification . . .  245 

Electric  Wiring 144 

Elevator  Machines 286 

Elevator,  Sidewalk 279 

Elevators,  Electric 282 

Excavation,  Specification  for 220 

Exhaust  Heating 287 

Expansion  of  Air 176 

Extras  31 


False  Girt 128 

Field  Riveting 295 

Figures  135 

Fmials  73 

Fire  Escape  269 

Fireplaces    137 

Fireproof  Building 265 

Fire  Stops 93,  151 

Fixing  Prices 200 

Flashings    76 

Flitch  Plates 86 

Floor  Arches 280 

Flooring  Timber 63 

Floors   186 


Floors,  Polishing 

Flues  

Footings  

Foundation  Stones 

Foundations 

Frame,  Balloon 

Frame,  Braced 

Frame,  Steel 

Framing 

Freestone   

Freezing  Weather 

French  Drain 

Fresco  

Frozen  Set 

Furnace 

Furring 139, 


PAGE 

216 

136 

40 

42 

33 
126 
124 

273 
117 

71 

74 

23 

215 

75 

173 

153 


Gable  Coping 73 

Gas-fitting,  Specification  for 255 

Gas-lighting,    Electric,    Specifica- 
tion for 245 

Gas-piping   142 

General  Conditions 218 

Girders 80,  86,  121 

Girts  125 

Girts,  Dropped 125 

Glass 216 

Glazing 216 

Glazing,  Specification  for 247 

Grading  22,  209 

Granite 57 

Grass 209 

Gravel  Foundation  53 

Grease  Separator 288 

Ground  Cock 166 

Ground  Water 107 

Gutter 80,  146 

Guy  Ropes   56 

H 

Hard  Pine.... 118 

Hardware 194 

Hardware,  Specification  for 241 

Headers  50 

Head- room    180 

Heating,  Specification  for 256 

Hemlock    117 

Herring-bone  Floor 190 

Hinges  199 

Hollow  Brick 298 

Hollow  Walls,  Ties  for 70 

Hopper,  Short 167 

Hot  Air  Pipes 140 

Hot  Water  Heating 287 


INDEX 


305 


I 

Inside  Painting 214 

Inspection  of  Steel  Frame 292 

Iron  Lath  152 

Iron  Pipes 159 

Irrigation,  Subsoil  205 


Jamb  Stones 72 

Joinery '. 178 

Joints  in  Pipe 161 

K 

Keys 196 

Kneelers 73 

Knobs 194,  197 


Lathing  153 

Lath,  Iron 152 

Laths  153 

Lead  Pipes 157 

Leaks  in  Roofs 148 

Ledger  Board 128 

Lever  Locks  196 

Lime  43 

Local  Vent 169 

Locks  194 

Long  Bracing   128 

Loose  Joint  Butts 199 

Loose  Pin  Butts 199 

Lumber 117 

M 

Marble 101 

Masonry   33 

Mason's  Specification 220 

Mason's  Square 15 

Matched  Floors  , 188 

Measuring  Diagonals 14 

Model  Contract  261 

Model  Specification  218 

Mortar  44 


Oak 191 

Office  Building 265 

Outside  Painting 210 

Overhanging  Walls 267 


Painting    210 

Painting  Shingles 147 

Painting,  Specification  for 246 

Painting  Steel  Frame 

Parquetry  

20 


Partitions,  Channel  Iron 299 

Partitions,  Unsupported  133 

Party  Walls  266 

Patched  Stones 74 

Pene  Hammering    10 

Peppermint  Test 172 

Piers  82 

Pine 117,  187 

Pipe,  Brass 158 

Pipe,  Iron  159 

Pipe,  Lead  157 

Pipe  Casings 160 

Pitched  Joints 9 

Pitching  Tool 8 

Plastering   95,  154 

Plastering,  Specification  for 226 

Plastering,  Weight  of 65 

Plate  126 

Plumbing 156 

Plumbing,  Specification  for 248 

Pointing   1 1,  104 

Polishing  Floors  216 

Portal  Framing 275 

Portland  Cement 291 

Protection  from  Dry- Rot 66 

Puddling   41 


euarry  Face 9 

uartered  Oak 191 

Quoins 62 

R 

Radiators 289 

Random  Ashlar 61 

Receiving  Tank 288 

Redwood   117 

Retaining  Wall 278,  292 

Rift  Hard  Pine 192 

Road  Building 23 

Rock  Face 9 

Roof 75,  133 

Round  Trap  165 

Rubble 47 

Rule  Joint 98 


Sand  36 

Sand-holes  71 

Sandstone 71 

Sashes  193 

Sash  Fasts  193,  198 

Scratch  Coat  155 

Screeds 155 

Screens   156,  298 

Seams  71 


3°6 


INDEX 


Setting-out 13 

Settlement 131 

Sewer  268 

Shakes 63,  118 

Shingles 146 

Shingles,  Painting 147 

Shingling 147 

Shrinkage 130 

Sidewalk   299 

Sill   119 

Silver  Grain 191 

Sinks   ". 164 

Siphonage  165 

Siphon  Jet  Closet 168 

Site   106 

Site,  Drainage  of 113 

Sizing  Beams 130 

Slate  83 

Slate  Stone 42 

Slating  147 

Smoke  Stack 282,  284 

Soil  Pipes 156 

Specifications   218 

Specifications  for  Bills  244 

"    Carpentry 227 

'    Electric        Gas- 
lighting  .. 


PAGE 


Electric     Light- 
ing  

Excavation    . 


245 

245 
220 

255 
247 
241 


'  Gas-fitting  . 
"  Glazing  .... 
"  Hardware  . 

'    Heating 256 

'    Masonry   220 

'    Painting 246 

"    Plastering 226 

"    Plumbing   248 

"    Stairs 243 

Spindles 197 

Splicing  Mouldings  180 

Spoil  Bank 23 

Springs   30 

Spruce  117,  186 

Square,  Mason's 15 

Staging  Lumber 58 

Staining 211 

Stairs 180 

Stairs,  Iron 281 

Stairs,  Specification  for 243 

Standing  Finish  179 


Steam  Plant  283 

Steel  Frame  Building 265 

Stone  Buildings 7 

Studding    120 

Subsoil  Irrigation 204 

Surface  Water  .  .  208 


Tanks  287 

Testing  Plumbing 171 

Test,  Peppermint  172 

Text-Books   3 

Three,  Four,  Five  Rule 15 

Tiling  Floors  102 

Timber 117 

Traps 164 

Trap  Ventilation 165 

Trowelling  154 

Trussing 139 

U 

Under  Floors 67 

Underpinning 116 

Unsupported  Partitions 133 

Upper  Floors  186 

V 

Vault  282 

Vaults  under  Sidewalk 278 

Veins  of  Water 30 

Veneered  Doors  192 

Ventilation  of  Traps 165 

W 

Wainscot,  Marble 282 

Waney  Timber  63 

Wash  Basins  162 

Wash  Down  Closet 167 

Wash  Trays  164 

Washout  Closet 169 

Water  Closets 167 

Water  Table 61 

Weathered  Pointing 34 

Weight  of  Plastering 65 

Weight  of  Timber 65 

Whitewood  192 

Window  Frames 149,  297 

Wooden  Buildings  105 


Zinc  Casings 160 


A  DICTIONARY 

of 

ARCHITECTURE  <S  BUILDING 

BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  DESCRIPTIVE 

i 

By  RUSSELL  STURGIS,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 

Fellow  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects,  and  many  Architects,  Painters , 
Engineers  and  other  Expert  Writers,  American  and  Foreign 


In  three  Quarto  Volumes  Fully  Illustrated 

Cloth,  $18.00  Per  Set.    Half  Morocco.  $30.00  Per  Set 


"The  first  volume  of  the  new  'Dictionary  of  Architecture  and  Building'  which  The 
Macmillan  Company  have  had  in  preparation  for  many  months,  has  at  last  been  issued, 
and,  as  far  as  can  be  judged  from  a  preliminary  inspection,  ought  to  receive  a  cordial 
welcome  from  the  many  architects,  painters,  engineers,  and  others  who  will  often  have 
occasion  to  consult  its  pages.  A  special  feature  of  this  valuable  reference  book  is  the 
exhaustive  treatment  accorded  the  existing  architecture  of  the  separate  countries.  The 
present  volume  contains  lengthy  papers  on  Austria-Hungary,  Belgium,  and  England,  the 
latter  occupying  more  than  twenty-five  quarto  pages,  and  illustrated  with  numerous  full- 
page  reproductions  of  famous  buildings.  Special  treatment  is  also  promised  for  the  coun- 
tries of  the  far  East A  commendable  feature  is  the  addition  to  the  vocabulary  of 

names  of  important  buildings,  in  cases  where  they  have  acquired  special  titles  in  addition 
to  their  geographical  designation,  such  as  Westminster  Abbey,  Bow  Church,  and  the  Pan- 
theon, and  the  like,  thus  facilitating  ready  reference.  A  word  of  praise  should  be  added 
for  the  illustrations,  which  are  generous  in  number  and  show  a  wise  discrimination  in 
selection." — NEW  YORK  COMMERCIAL  ADVERTISER. 

"No  such  work  as  'A  Dictionary  of  Architecture  and  Building'  exists  in  English,  and 
no  man  is  more  competent  to  prepare  it  than  Russell  Sturgis.  He  has  had  the  assistance 
of  many  expert  writers,  both  American  and  foreign.  Thus  under  the  heading  'Architect,' 
besides  Mr.  Sturgis's  own  general  article,  Alexandre  Sandier,  director  of  the  works  of  art 
at  the  National  Manufactory  of  Sevres,  contributes  an  essay  on  'The  Architect  in  France,' 
and  John  Safford  Fiske,  a  specialist  in  Italian  art,  contributes  one  on  'The  Architect  in 
Italy.'  It  is  impossible  to  give  the  long  list  of  contributors.  It  includes  some  of  the  most 

eminent  practitioners  of  architecture  in  the  country  besides  scientists No  more 

comprehensive  book  of  its  kind  was  ever  planned.  It  takes  in  a  biography  of  Domenicheno 
and  an  account  of  Italian  communal  dwellings;  several  pages  treat  of  electrical  appliances, 
bells,  lights,  wiring,  etc.  A  tabulated  list  of  the  principal  churches  of  the  world  gives 
briefly  their  peculiarities,  style,  and  date, — or  dates,  for  they  are  equally  the  product  of 
more  than  one  century  and  more  than  one  method  of  architecture.  You  can  find  corbel  and 
boss  and  emplecton  and  epi  and  any  other  word  needing  explanation.  You  can  read  an 
essay  on  columns  in  general  and  you  can  look  up  particular  columns,  like  Pompey's  Column 
or  the  Colonne  Vendome.  Every  term  that  requires  it  has  a  number  of  cross-references, 
and  every  long  article  is  accompanied  by  a  bibliography  in  which  more  detailed  information 
may  be  obtained.  Of  necessity  the  work  is  fully  illustrated.  There  are  certainly  as  many 
pictures  as  pages  and  thirty-six  of  them  are  full-page  representations  of  typical  buildings. 
Only  the  first  volume  as  yet  has  appeared  of  the  three  into  which  the  work  is  divided. 
There  is  nothing  but  praise,  and  high  praise,  for  this  useful  and  valuable  'dictionary'  or 
encyclopaedia." — CHICAGO  EVENING  POST. 


The  Macmillan  Co.,  66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 


MODERN  PERSPECTIVE 

A    TREATISE    UPON    THE    PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE    OF 
PLANE    AND    CYLINDRICAL    PERSPECTIVE 

By  WILLIAM  R.  WARE 

Professor  of  Architecture  in  the  School  of  Mines,  Columbia  College 

Fifth  Edition.    In  one  volume,  square  8vo.    321  pp.,  with  27  Plates  in  a 
Portfolio.    Price  $4.00 


This  is  by  far  the  most  exhaustive  of  modern  works  on  the  subjects  relating  to 
perspective,  plane  and  panoramic,  and  of  great  value  to  all  architects  and  artists, 
and  others  interested  in  the  problems  of  art.  The  scientific  and  pictorial  aspects  of 
these  investigations  are  carefully  and  thoroughly  considered,  both  independently  and 
in  their  connection  with  drawing  ;  and  the  propositions  of  the  author  are  illustrated 
by  plates  of  architectural  objects  and  perspective  plans.  An  invaluable  book  for 
artists,  architects,  draughtsmen,  and  civil  engineers. 


CONTENTS 

Chapter  I.    The  Phenomena  of  Perspective  in  Nature 
II.    The  Phenomena  Relating  to  the  Picture 

III.  Sketching  in  Perspective.    The  Perspective  Plan.    The  Division 

of  Lines  by  Diagonals 

IV.  The  Division  of  Lines  by  Triangles 

V.  On  the  Exact  Determination  of  the  Direction  and  Magnitude  of 

Perspective  Lines 

VI.  The  Position  of  the  Picture.    The  Object  at  45°.    Measurement 

of  Obliquely  Inclined  Lines 

VII.  Parallel  Perspective.    Change  of  Scale 

VIII.  Oblique  or  Three-point  Perspective 

IX.  The  Perspective  of  Shadows 

X.  The  Perspective  of  Reflections 

XI.  The  Perspective  of  Circles 

XII.  Distortions  and  Corrections.    The  Human  Figure 

XIII.  Cylindrical,  Curvilinear,  or  Panoramic  Perspective 

XIV.  Divergent  and  Convergent  Lines.    Shadows  by  Artificial  Light 
XV.  Other  Systems  and  Methods 

XVI.  The  Inverse  Process 

XVII.  Summary.    Principles 

XVIII.  Geometrical  Problems 

XIX.  The  Practical  Problem 


The  Macmillan  Co.,  66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  YorK 


SAFE  BUILDING 

By  LOUIS  DECOPPET  BERG 
In  two  volumes,  square  8vo.    Illustrated.    Price,  $5.00  each  volume 


***  An  edition  of  Vol.  I  may  also  be  bad  in  pocket  form, 
in  flexible  roan ,  with  flap .     Price ,  $3 .00 


The  author  proposes  to  furnish  to  any  earnest  student  the  opportunity  to  acquire, 
so  far  as  books  will  teach,  the  knowledge  necessary  to  erect  safely  any  building. 
First  comes  an  introductory  chapter  on  the  Strength  of  Materials.  This  chapter 
gives  the  value  of,  and  explains  briefly,  the  different  terms  used,  such  as  stress, 
strain,  factor  of  safety,  centre  of  gravity,  neutral  axis,  moment  of  inertia,  etc. 
Then  follows  a  series  of  chapters,  each  dealing  with  some  part  of  a  building,  giving 
practical  advice  and  numerous  calculations  of  strength  ;  for  instance,  chapters  on 
foundations,  walls  and  piers,  columns,  beams,  roof  and  other  trusses,  spires,  masonry, 
girders,  inverted  and  floor  arches,  sidewalks,  stairs,  chimneys,  etc. 

These  papers  are  the  work  of  a  practising  architect,  and  not  of  a  mere  book- 
maker or  theorist.  Mr.  Berg,  aiming  to  make  his  work  of  the  greatest  value  to  the 
largest  number,  has  confined  himself  in  his  mathematical  demonstrations  to  the  use 
of  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  plane  geometry.  In  short,  these  papers  are  in  the  high- 
est sense  practical  and  valuable. 


CONTENTS 

VOLUME  I  VOLUME  II 

CHAPTER  CHAPTER 

I.    Strength  of  Materials  vin-    The  Nature  and  Uses  of  Iron 

II.    Foundations  and  Steel 

III.  Cellar  and  Retaining  Walls  IX'    Rivets»  Wveting,  and  Pins 

IV.  Walls  and  Piers  *'    ^te  and  Box  Girders 

_.           .  XI.    Graphical  Analysis  of  Strains 

V'    Arches  in  Trusses 

VI.    Floor-beams  and  Girders  m    Wooden  and  Iron  Trusses 

VII.    Graphical  Analysis  of  Trans-  XIII.    Columns 

verse  Strains  Tables         Index 


The  Macmillan  Co.,  66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

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